Geology & Astronomy Grade - 10 (Science )

 

 Geology and Astronomy   Grade -   10 (Science )

Unit                               Topics
21                                  History of Earth
22                                  Climate Change and  Atmosphere
23                                  The Earth in the Universe
                    Specification Grid  -2074 

 Division of 7 marks in Knowledge(K) ,Understanding(Un), Application(AP), and Higher abilities(HA) types of questions  

Areas	S.N.	Units	Total no. of questions & their marks					Remarks
			K-20%	Un-35%	Ap-24%	HA-21%	Total
Geology  & Astronomy	21 22   23	History of Earth Climate Change &Atmosphere The History of Earth	1x1= 1	1x2= 2	-	1x4= 4	7 marks	Physics-56+ Chemistry-56+ Biolog-56+Geology &Astronomy-12 Periods=180 periods
	3		1	1	-	1	7 marks

Scholastic Areas  :-Grading on 9 points Scale

S.N.	Marks range	Grade	Attributes	Grade Points	Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9	90 to 100 80 to below 90 70 to below 80 60 to below 70 50 to below 60 40 to below 50 40 to below 50 30 to below 40 0 to below 20	A+ A B+ B C+ C D+ D E	Outstanding Excellent Very good Good Satisfactory Acceptable Partially Acceptable Insufficient Very insufficient	4.0 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.4 2.0 1.6 1.2 0.8	The minimum qualifying grade in all subjects under scholastic Domain Is C

                   Unit :-    21               History of Earth

Some Hypothesis about origin of the solar system and the earth.

1.)George Wafan’s hypothesis:  According to the hypothesis propounded by George Wafan’s ,the earth along with other planets and satellites was formed when a comet revolving around the universe struck the sun millions years ago i.e.the broken pieces of round mass are planet and the central parts of that mass is the sun.

2.)Jeans Jeffery or Tidal hypothesis: According the hypothesis propounded by Jean and Jeffery a big star was orbiting around the sun  came closer to the sun and developed a tide due to its own attraction of the star and the material splitted out from the sun while cooling and planet , satellite were formed.

3.Nabular hypothesis (Kant-Laplace nebular hypothesis): This hypothesis was first propounded by German philosopher Kant and latter it was modified by French mathematician Laplace,According to this hypothesis whole of our solar system  including other heavenly bodies was formed in the form of Nebula i.e. large mass of dust particle and gases.

During this process when Nebula began to contract due to its gravity its outer ring was detached from central core of Nebula which started to revolve around the central core then ,masses began to collide with one another due to its gravitation  as result from central core sun and from pieces of outer ring planets as well as satellite were formed.

Note:

Estimated age of earth=about 4.5 billion year

Diameter of earth=12756.3Km

Mass of earth=6×10²⁴kg

Area of surface=5097×10⁵Sq.km

Major gases.N_2,O₂,CO₂

Number of satellite=1(Moon)

Methods of determination of age of earth.:

i)By analyzing rocks and fossils available on the earth .

ii)By studying the radio activity of rocks and fossils.

Geographical time scale: A time scale that covers the earth’s history from its origin to the present time or till today is called geographical  time scale. On the basis of existence of living the Geologist have divided the hole geographical time scale into 4 parts :

1.)Eon       2.) Era      3.) Period         4.)Epoch

1.)Eon: The largest unit of geographical time scale is called eon. It is also divided into 2 parts : i)Cryptozoic eon   ii)Phanerozoic Eon

2.)Era:The unit of geographical time scale which is larger than that of period and smaller than that of eon is called era .It is also divided into 4 parts :

i) Precambrian era

ii)Paleozoic era

iii)Mesozoic era

iv)Cenozoic era   

3)Period:The unit of geographical  time scale which is larger than that of epoch and smaller than that of era is called period i.e. Devonian ,Silurian, Triassic ,Jurassic etc.

4.)Epoch:The smallest unit  of geographical time scale is called epoch. i.e. Paleocene, Eocene ,Oligocene etc.

Advantages of geographical time scale:

i)It gives the estimated age of earth.

ii)It gives the history of organic evolution.

i)Precambrian era: The era which duration was 4.5 billion years ago to 57 crore years  ago is called Precambrian era.

Events

-Formation of metamorphic rocks from igneous rocks.

-Evolution of unicellular organism i.e. Bacteria ,algae.

-Development of multi cellular organism.

ii)Paleozoic era: The era which duration was 57 crore  years ago to 25 crore years ago is called Paleozoic era.

Events

-Formation of sedimentary rocks.

-Evolution of green plants and fish and development of fish.

-Evolution of reptile and amphibian ie frog

-Evolution and development of pteridophytes i.e. fern.

-Evolution of first winged insects.

-Change occurred in atmosphere and weather.

It is divided into six periods i.e.  i)Cambrian ii)Ordovician iii)Silurian iv)Devonian v)Carboniferous vi)Permian

iii)Mesozoic era : The era which duration was 25 crore years ago to 6 crore  50 lakh  years ago is called  Mesozoic era .

Events

-Evolution of Dinosaurs, aves ,Turtle,big reptile,conifers plant,Formation of    hills and mountains( in trassic period.)

-development or dominance of reptiles  so this era is called Golden age of reptiles ,development of dinosaurs ,aves, conifers ,suitable condition on land and water air for survival of life (in Jurassic period)

-Extinction of dinosaurs and large reptiles ,evolution of angiosperm or flowering plants (in Cretaceous period)

-It is divided into 3 periods i.e. i)Trassic period ii)Jurassic period  iii) cretaceous period .

iv)Cenozoic Era: The era which duration was 6 crore 25 lakh years ago to present till today is called cenozic era .This era is also called era of human being or golden age of mammals due to dominance of mammals or especially human  being. it is divided into two periods i.e. 1.)Tertairy period :It is also divided into 5 epochs i.e.i)Paleocene ii)Eocene iii)Oligocene iv)Miocene v)Pliocene      2.)Quaternary period :it is also divided into 2  i.e.i)Pleistocene   ii)Holocene

Events:

-Evolution of primary mammals , primitive carnivorous and horses .

-Development of different mammals i.e. elephant, whale, bat.

-Evolution of sharp teethed animals i.e. cat, rat ,dog, monkey, owl, crocodile

-Development of grass and herb.

-Evolution of human being, development of modern human being and dominance of human being.

-Decrease of temperature of earth and mountains covered by snow, drastic change in climate.

-Volcano eruptions .

Paleontology: The branch of science consist the study of fossils is called paleontology.

Fossils: The traces or impression of dead plants animals preserved under the earth million of years ago is called fossils .it is mainly found in sedimentary rocks .

Methods of identification of fossils:

i)By the study of the impression of whole or parts of any organs of dead body remains in hard ground or stone of rocks .

ii)By the study of whole skeleton of animals and plants are  pressed in the rocks .

iii)By the study of morphology of hard parts i.e. skeleton, bones, shoot ,leaves, etc. are found in the ground ,sand ,stones etc.

Importance of study of  fossils:

i)The study of fossils help us to discover the evolutionary trends of plants and animals  on earth.

ii)The  study of fossils help to know about the extinct animals and plants .

iii)The study of fossils help to show the history of location from where a fossil is obtained .

iv)The study of fossils helps us to determine the age of rocks ,,to know the geological history ,and to know about the organic evolution on the earth .

Process of formation of fossils: Due to natural disasters i.e. flood ,land slide, volcano earth quake etc. the dead plants and animals are deposited at the bottom sea and covered with materials i.e. sand, mud etc ,then the soft parts of dead plants and animals get  decayed  into the soil and hard parts remains as fossils between the layers of sedimentary rocks .

Fossils fuel: The fuel which are formed in the nature by decomposition and preservation of fossils of dead plants and animals under high pressure and high temperature due to geological change in long period of time is called fossil fuel. For example :  Coal ,minerals oil .Natural gas .etc.

Importance of fossils fuel:

i)It is cheaper and more abundant(easy to supply) than that of other fuels.

ii)It can be easily  transported .

iii)It is used to run vehicles and machines in industries .

iv)It is used as sources of heat and also used for generating electricity.

 Coal: A dark or brown substance formed from the fossils of plants deposited inside the earth crust between the layers of sedimentary rocks is called coal.On the  basis of amount of  carbon present in the in the coal .They are 4 types :

i)Lignite =70% carbon

ii)Sub bituminous=60% carbon

iii)Bituminous =80%carbon

iv)Anthracite =90% carbon

Importance of coal:

i)It is used in brick and metal factory for burning purpose .

ii)It is used for household purpose i.e.cooking,boiling,etc.

iii)It is produce thermo-electricity.

iv)The coal tar of coal is used for making plastic.

v)It is also used for national income.

Process of formation of coal:  Due to natural disasters i.e. flood ,land slide, volcano earth quake etc. the dead plants  are deposited at the bottom sea and covered with materials i.e. sand, mud etc ,then the soft parts of dead plants  get  decayed  into the soil and  remains hard parts due to high temperature and pressure inside rocks undergoes decomposition and converted into coal .This process is also known as carbonization. During carbonization presence of low pressure Lignite coal is formed but when pressure increased lignite change into Bituminous coal and presence of very high pressure Anthracite coal are formed.

Mineral oil: The oil which is formed from the fossil of dead plants and animals present as crude liquid  inside the pores of sedimentary is called mineral oil .When mineral oil contain different ingredients after extraction is called crude oil.

Importance of mineral oil:

i)It is used in vehicles ,aero planes ,ship as fuel.

ii)It is used as fuel for cooking .

iii)It is used in many industries as fuel.

iv)It is used in manufacturing plastic, chemical fertilizers, pesticides etc.

v)It is used for generating electricity.

Process of formation of mineral oil: Due to natural disasters i.e. flood ,land slide, volcano earth quake etc. the dead plants and animal  are deposited at the bottom sea and covered with materials i.e. sand, mud etc ,then the soft parts of dead plants  get  decayed  into the soil and  remains hard parts due to high temperature and pressure inside rocks undergoes various chemical reaction and converted into a dark liquid and trapped in the pores of the rocks and collected between two impermeable rocks in the form of crude oil .

It contains a mixture of various substances beside water and various earth particles ,then it subjected to fractional distillation to separate into different components i.e.  gas , petrol, kerosene ,lubricant oil, diesel waxes etc. such process of purification is known as refining of petroleum and  technique is called fractional distillation.

Natural gas: The fossil fuel which contains the mixture of methane (85%to95%) ethane and propane is called natural gas .It is obtained by drilling deeps holes in the earth is called oil well. It is formed by the process of mineral oil from dead plants and animals so it is mostly found with petroleum deposits above mineral oil .

Importance of natural gas:

i)It is used as the domestic and industrial fuels .

ii)It is used for the manufacturing of carbon black filler for rubber industries.

iii)It is used for the production of hydrogen gas .

Name of some petroleum substances and their uses:

i)Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) =It is used as a fuel.

ii)Petroleum ether =It is used as solvent in dry cleaning clothes .

iii)Petrol =It is used as fuel in the vehicles .

iv)Diesel =It is as fuel in the 4 wheeled vehicles.

v)Kerosene =It is used as household fuel.

vi)Lubricating oil (Grease ,Vaseline)=It is as lubricating agent in various machine.

vii)Paraffin wax= It is used for making candles ,wax paper etc.

viii)Petroleum cake ,bitumen =It is used for making road.

                  

                     

               Unit:-22 Climate change and Atmosphere

Atmosphere: The thick layers of air  surrounding  the earth’s  crust is called    atmosphere . It consist of various gases ,i.e. Nitrogen(78.1%), Oxygen(20.9%), Carbon dioxide (0.03%),inert gases, Ozone, water vapour dust particles  etc. It is hold by the gravity of the earth.

Importance of atmosphere:

i)The atmosphere supplies the oxygen for breathing and the burning. .

ii)It provides the carbon dioxide to the plants for photosynthesis .

iii)It help to maintain the fixed temperature of earth .

iv)It work as mediator for completing water cycle in the nature .

iv) Ozone layer of atmosphere help to absorb harmful ultra violet radiation coming  from the sun.

 On the basis of the  temperature, and height from the earth surface atmosphere is divided into 5 parts :

                                                                 Fig. Different layer of atmosphere

1.)Troposphere: The lower most layer of the atmosphere is called Troposphere .It extends up to a height of 16 km from the earth surface .The upper most layer that separate troposphere and stratosphere is called tropopause.

Features:

-Human being and about   90% of total mass of atmosphere is present in this layer.

-It contains large amount of gases i.e.N_2,O_2.CO_2,,inert gases ,water vapour  etc.

-Various activities related to weather i.e. cloud formation ,wind, light, rain ,strom, lighting, fog etc take place in this layer ,due following properties it is used by scientist to take information about weathers.

-The temperature of troposphere is variable according to its height, because the concentration of gases of this layer decreases as the height increases from earth surface. These gases act as green house gases that increase the temperature of this layer. So when we go up in troposphere the temperature goes on decreasing(6.5% per km) or variable .

-Troposphere is also responsible for weather change because weather factors i.e.cloud,rain, temperature and pressure is directly related with troposphere.

 2.)Stratosphere: The layer of atmosphere which is situated between troposphere and mesosphere  is called stratosphere. It extends from 16 km to 50 km vertically upward from the earth’s surface .The upper most layer of stratosphere that separate stratosphere and mesosphere is called mseopause.

Features:

-Its upper most layer contains ozone layer that absorb most of  solar radiation i.e.ultra violet ray coming from the sun.

- The temperature of this layer increases according to its height,because its upper most layer contains ozone layer that absorb  most of solar radiation that help to increase temperature of this layer while going up.

-This layer is called protective layer because it contains ozone layer which absorb ultra violet rays and protect us from ultra violet effects and balance the temperature of troposphere.

-This layer also does not contains any cloud that help to give clear vision for fly jet plane.

 3.)Mesosphere: The layer of atmosphere which is situated between stratosphere and thermosphere is called mesosphere .It extends from 50 km to 80 km vertically upward from the earth surface. The upper most layer of mesosphere that separate mesosphere and thermosphere is called mesopause .

Features:

-In this layer strong wind blows from west to east in winter and east to west in spring.The temperature of this layer decreases according to its height because the lower most part of this layer also contain little amount of ozone layer which absorb solar radiation that decrease the temperature of this layer while going up.

 4.)Thermosphere: The layer of atmosphere which is situated between mesosphere and exosphere is called thermosphere .it extends from 80 km to 720 km vertically upward from the earth surface .

Features:

-In the lower region of this layer due to ultra violet radiation molecules of O_2,N₂ etc. decompose to form ions, so it is also called ionosphere.

-This layer also help in communication field because radio waves can travel to different parts of world by bouncing off ions present in it.

-The temperature of this layer is very high due high effect of solar radiation.

 5.)Exosphere: The outer most layers of atmosphere is called exosphere .it extends from 720 km to space vertically from earth surface.

Features :

 -In this layer of atmosphere ,gravity is so weak so some atom of this layer gradually escape into the space.

-In this layer the molecules of air is negligible but the molecules and atoms of air blow with very high speed.

-This layer form outer most edge of atmosphere ,so it is also called fringe region.

 Ozone gas and ozone layer: When oxygen molecules absorb high energy of solar radiation and it dissociate into nascent oxygen then nascent oxygen combine with an oxygen molecules and a new molecule is formed is known as ozone gas

i-O_2→      ^{UV Rays}            O+O

ii-O₂ + O     _→                          O₃ (ozone gas)

Ozone gas is found upper most layer of stratosphere as a layer of pale bluish gas (gas) is called ozone layer or ozonosphere.

The region in the atmosphere where amount of ozone has been reduced drastically is called ozone hole. For example :Ozone hole has been detected over the region of Antarctica in 1980.

 Advantages or protection of ozone layer:

i)Ozone layer play an important role to keep weather and temperature of the balanced .

ii)The ozone layer absorbed about 99% of the harmful ultra violet ray coming from the sun.

iii)Ozone layer help to preserve the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem on the earth.

-Causes(Chemicals) of depletion of ozone layer:

i)Chlorofluorocarbon  (CFCl_{3 ,}CFCl_{12 and}CFCL₁₃): American scientist Thomas Miez is the inventor of CFC_s .It is major causes of ozone layer depletion.

-CFCl_{3         →}    ^{UV radiation}            CFCl₂+Cl(Nascent  Chlorine)

-Cl +O_{3     →}                            ClO +O₂

_-2ClO       _→                  2Cl+O₂

Uses or advantages: -It very cheap ,non –toxic, and non flammable so it can be used in refrigerator, aerosol, spray can, plastic manufacturing etc.

-It act as cooling agent as well as solvent.

ii)Oxides of Nitrogen(NO,NO₂,N₂O)

-NO     _→                   NO₂+O₂

NO₂ +O_{3     →}             N₂O₃ +2O₂

iii)Methyl bromide(CH₃Br)

iv)Chloroform(CHCl₃)

 Process of depletion of ozone layer:  When the gases like CFC_s,CO,CH₃Br,oxides of nitrogen etc. reach into stratosphere ,they are decomposed by ultra violet radiation and chlorine is formed .This chlorine help to decompose ozone and depletion of ozone layer takes place.

 Effects of depletion of ozone layer:  Due to depletion of ozone layer more ultra violet radiation reach on earth’s surface ,that cause of following effects:

i-)Effects on health of human being: due to depletion of ozone layer in human being ultra violet rays causes of various diseases i.e. skin cancer ,breast  cancer, blood cancer, Blindness ,damage to immune system, affect to DNA and causes of mutation.

ii-)Effects on plants and animals :  Due to depletion of ozone layer in plants and animals ultra rays cause of hamper of growth and development animals and plants, productivity of crops reduced, destroy protein content and chlorophyll, affects fertility of animals, larva, and eggs of aquatic and amphibian and eye cancer in cattle.

iii-)Increase in temperature :  due to depletion of ozone layer more ultra violet radiation enters the earth’s surface then due to more radiation more heat accumulates and green house effect  increases ,as result the temperature of earth increases or causes of global warming.

 Protection of ozone layer:

i)Reducing and controlling the emission of CFC_s.

ii)Uses of nitrogen fertilizer should be reduced.

iv)Generating awareness about the ozone layer depletion in people.

 Artificial green house: The houses made up of plastic ,or glass for the cultivation of plants and crops inside it are called artificial green house .

The temperature inside the green house is always more than that of outside it ,because glass or plastic allow inter sun radiation but when strike on the ground it change into wave have less energy or longer wave length that can not  go out from the house and get reflected inside house as result due to accumulation of more sun radiation the temperature of inside the increases.

Uses or advantages : i)It is used to grow different crops in off seasons i.e. summer plant can be grow in winter season and the plant of terai can be grow in mountain region.

 Green house effect: The increase of temperature of earth by trapping the solar heat in earth by green house gases( i.e.CO_2,N₂O,CH₄,CFC_s and water vapour) is called green house effect

Effects of green house:

i)It causes the skin and eye cancer .

ii)It help spreading diseases like malaria, filarial ,etc.

iii)It help to increase temperature and which effect water cycle and reduce production of crops .

iv)Global warming is caused by green house effect so snow of polar will melt and it will increase sea by which Island may disappear  in ocean .

v)It causes the increase surface temperature of earth and living being can survive on earth surface.

Methods of controlling green house effects:

i)by reducing use of fossil fuels .

ii)By increasing afforestation .

iii)By banning use of CFC_s.

Industrial gases: During the manufacture of various substances in factories or are called industrial gases .

industries different harmful substances along with harmful and toxic gases i.e.SO₂CO_2,CO etc. are produced

 Effects of industrial gases:

i)The industrial gases when mixes with rain water cause of acid rain that corrodes the building ,monuments, temples, bridges etc. and also destroy the aquatic life .

ii)Industrial gases causes the health issues i.e. headache, dizziness ,eye infection ,chest pain, lung cancer ,asthma etc. in human being.

iii)Carbon monoxide causes disturbance in the oxygen transport mechanism of blood circulation.

iv)Oxide of Nitrogen depleted the ozone layer .

Acid rain: The rain containing small amount of acid in it formed from gases like Sulpher dioxide (SO₂),carbon dioxide (CO₂),Nitrogen dioxide(NO₂) etc. present is atmosphere is called acid rain .For example:

i)CO₂+ H₂O                _→          H₂CO₃(carbonic acid)

ii)SO_{2      →}^oxidation           SO₃ + H₂O       _→               H₂SO4 (Sulphuric acid)

iii) 2NO₂+2H₂O +O_{2            →}          4HNO₃(Nitric acid)

Effects of acid rain:

i)Acid rain damages the building and sculptural materials i.e.lime stone and marbles .

ii)It causes of the loss of nutrients from plant foliage and it damages the leaves and trees.

iii)It remove basic nutrients i.e. calcium from soil.

iv)It increase the acidity of soil  that reduce the fertility of soil.

v)it also damages the lot of crops ,plants etc.

 Smog: The combination of smoke and fog in the atmosphere is known as smog .It is  generally found on big metropolitan  cities .

Effects of smog:  

i)It causes of respiratory problems .

ii)It causes disruption of road and traffic.

Climate: The atmospheric condition over a long period of time is known as climate .

Climatology: The branch of science consisting the study of the climate is known as climatology.

Climate change:  The change in weather condition of certain place due to atmospheric and natural factors is called climate change.

Causes of climate change : The cause of climate change are as following:

i)Release of green house gases .

ii)Industrialization.

iii)Deforestation .

iv)Increase in temperature.

v)Volcanic eruption.

vi)Over use of chemical fertilizer.

Effects of climate change: The effects of climate change are as following :

i)It melt snow of polar region and sea level increase .

ii)It decreases the agriculture  production and change the crops pattern.

iii)It effect the water cycle .

iv)It decreases the amount of fresh water .

 Monsoon: The periodic wind which may dry or wet is called monsoon.

Advantages of monsoon:

i)It maintain the temperature of land.

ii)It help to increase forest which is very important for the balance of nature.

iii)It increase the water level in river and lakes which help for water transportation .

Disadvantages of monsoon:

i)It causes land slide in hilly region.

National efforts for reduction and adaptational of climate change :

i)National communication report :

ii)Climate change policy 2067:

iii)Climate change adaptation strategic program in Nepal

iv.)National adaptation program

v) Local adaptation program related to climate change

vi)Other programs

i)National communication report : Nepal submitted first its report to the COP(Conference of the parties) of United nation of organization protocol related to climate change. The things induced in this report are :

i)The adverse effect of climate change in Nepal and measures of its adaptation.

ii)Required strength and policy ,rules .

iii)Plans for reducing effort of climate change .

                It also includes the important of research in the sectors i.e. agriculture, forest ,industries, transportation, waste of materials.

ii)Climate change policy 2067:  Climate change policy 2067 has been developed with specific objective and policies i.e. increase in temperature has negative  impacts on agriculture ,forest ,human health, biodiversity, socio-economic aspects etc. in Nepal. So it is necessary   to generate awareness or skill among people of different level to adopt and reduce climate change .

iii)Climate change adaptation strategic program in Nepal  :  The world climate model program provides financial support to poor countries to adopt various ways with climate change .The climate change adaptation program of Nepal has been taken a long term program  by dividing into 5 sectors :They are as :i)Adaptation to risk induced by climate change .

ii)Climate change adaptation of watershed (jaladhar) of hilly region .

iii)Mainstream flow (Mulprabahikarn) of the risk management of climate change in development project .

iv)Promotion of climate change adaption for vulnerable species .

v)Building a capable community for climate change adaptation with active participation  of the private sectors .

iv.)National adaptation program :  This program was prepared by the government of Nepal in September  2010 .This program evaluates the climate change and its risk .This program conduct 250 programs under 9 integrated program .

v) Local adaptation program related to climate change :This program is conducted in rural and community level .Four theories i.e. progressive, Inclusive ,capability ,  and flexibility are kept in mind ,while selecting the adaptational programs related to climate change in local level .It conducts to different programs in local levels to minimize the impacts of the climate change to provide  necessary service to the rural communities and poor families .

vi)Other programs :It includes different programs i.e. chimney of brick factories , improve stove of biogas ,rain water collection ,energy conservation etc.

International efforts for reduction and adaptation to climate change :The international efforts for reduction and adaptation to climate changes are as following :

i) UNFCCC (United Nation Framework Convention on climate change )

ii)UN climate change conference

iii)Agenda -21

iv) Intergovernmental forum :

v)Kyoto protocol (Abhisandhi ):

vi)Measure to reduce greenhouse gases according to protocol

vii)Clean development mechanism to meet their emission target :

vii)Reduction of emission due to deforestation

 i) UNFCCC (United Nation Framework Convention on climate change ):On the basis of treaty (Sandhi)of UNFCCC negotiated in June 1992 in Reo-de-Janerio ,countries that signed the treaty must inform the work and program conducted in their countries related to  climate change .In 2011  Nepal prepared the climate change policy on the basis of the UNFCCC and its acting .

ii)UN climate change conference :The UN conference on climate change has been conducted 19 times by 2013 A.D. .These conferences inform the works and programs conducted in a country to other members countries .

iii)Agenda -21 :This is related Slogan “Think globally and act locally .This project contains environment development and monitoring and implementing the agreements local ,national and inter national level.

iv) Intergovernmental forum :This forum was established to study and investigate the climate change .It was formed by the co-operation of world climate organization and United Nation environmental program in 1988 A.D. It prepares a reports on the scientific research ,investigation ,and effort of climate change to support UNFCCC .

v)Kyoto protocol (Abhisandhi ):This protocol made 36 developed countries of the world to reduce the emission of green house gases by 5.25% by 2012 A.D. The main objective of this protocol is reduce production of green house gases to control global worming  and minimize the  effects of   climate change .        

vi)Measure to reduce greenhouse gases according to protocol :The developed and developing countries consumes large amount of minerals fuel to operate their industries and factories .As result a large amount of green house gases are released into atmosphere .Therefore Kyoto protocol encouraged the developed as well as developing countries  to conduct 3 additional means :i)International emission trading  ii)Joint implementation 

iii)Clean development mechanism to meet their emission target

vii)Reduction of emission due to deforestation :Carbon play an important role in climate change ,forest is an important natural resources that absorb and stores carbon in large amount .Therefore developed countries should reduce deforestation and conduct a forestation  program and other ways developed countries that produces a large amount of industrial gases should provide economic aids to developing and under developing countries for conservation and management of forest . 

       

         Unit :-23     The Earth in the universe

Unverse: The huge space which contains every things i.e.stars, planets ,satellite, meteorites,  comets etc.  that exist is called the universe .The width of universe is about 100000 light years.

Units of astronomical distance :  There are three widely used units to express the astronomical  distance :

i)Light year: The total distance covered by a ray  of light in the vacuum in one year is called light year .It is also called  big unit which is used to measure the distance in the universe.

Light year =c×t       (Where c = velocity of  light ,t= time taken)

=3×10⁸×60×60×24×365

=9460800 ×10⁸  =9.46×10⁷ ×10⁸m

Therefore ,One light year =9.46×10¹⁵m

ii)Astronomical unit : The distance between the earth and the sun is called astronomical unit .It is also called unit which is used to measure the distance in the solar system .

1 astronomical unit(A.U.)=1.5 ×10¹¹m or 1.5×10⁸km

iii)Parsec: The distance between the sun and a point in the space to which the mean radius of earth’s orbit makes an angle of one second is called parsec .It is also called unit which is used to measure distance in the astronomy .

One parsec = 3.26 light years

=3.26 ×9.4608 ×10¹⁵m

=3.084×10¹⁶m

Solar system: The family of the sun including all planets ,satellites , asteroids , meteors, comets , etc is called solar system .The diameter of solar system is about 10.5 light years .All the bodies in the solar system revolves around the sun. Our solar system lies in the milky way galaxy.

ii)Astronomical unit : The distance between the earth and the sun is called astronomical unit .It is also called unit which is used to measure the distance in the solar system .

1 astronomical unit(A.U.)=1.5 ×10¹¹m or 1.5×10⁸km

iii)Parsec: The distance between the sun and a point in the space to which the mean radius of earth’s orbit makes an angle of one second is called parsec .It is also called unit which is used to measure distance in the astronomy .

One parsec = 3.26 light years

=3.26 ×9.4608 ×10¹⁵m

=3.084×10¹⁶m

Solar system: The family of the sun including all planets ,satellites , asteroids , meteors, comets , etc is called solar system .The diameter of solar system is about 10.5 light years .All the bodies in the solar system revolves around the sun. Our solar system lies in the milky way galaxy.

Sun: The middle sized of star of our solar is known as the sun .The diameter of sun is 1392400km,average temperature 10,000 and central temperature is about 3.5×10⁷ .The mass of sun is about 740 times more than that of the sum of all planets .It  consist of mainly hydrogen and helium gases .The light and heat energy is liberated from the sun due to fusion reaction of hydrogen atoms into helium atom. The stream of charged ions called plasma is continuously emitted in the form of solar wind having speeds about 500km/s.

Importance of sun in the solar system:

i)It is the center of solar system .

ii)All planets revolves around the sun in their own orbits.

iii)The provides light and heat to all planets .

iv)The sun provides necessary centripetal force for all the planets to move their orbits.

Planet: The heavenly bodies which revolves around the sun in their own orbit is called planet .They do not have their own light .There are 8 planets in our solar system.

i)Mercury

ii)Venus

iii)Earth            1)Inner Planets

iv)Mars

iv)Jupiter

v)Saturn           2)Outer planets

vi)Uranus

vii)Neptune

i)Mercury:

Features: -Smallest and nearest planet from the sun .

-Nearest and fastest revolving planet and during day very hot and during night very cold due to nearest planet of sun.

-Not have any satellite  and atmosphere .

-Surface is full of creatures ,.

-Orbit time period is 88sdays and axis time period is 59 days.

-Temperature varies from -170 to 427 due to nearest planet of sun.

ii)Venus:

Features: -Brightest planet and have not any satellite.

-Hottest planet due to presence of atmosphere   green house gases  i.e.

surface temperature is 480 

-morning , evening star because it seen in the sky before sun rise and after

sun  set .

-Orbital time period is 250 days and axis time period is 243 days and closed

planet to the earth.

iii)Earth :

Features: -Green or blue planet.

-Unique planet  having life and surface temperature is about 22.

-Atmosphere containing oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen ,etc.

-have one satellite i.e. moon and having large amount of water.

-distance from the sun is about 1.5 ×10⁸km.

-Orbital time period is 365.6 days and axis time period is 24 hours .

-Mass is about 6×10²⁴kg. and density is 5.52 gm/cm³.

 iv)Mars:

Features: -Red planet due presence of iron containing mineral limonite on the surface.

-have two satellites i.e. Diemos, phobos.

-Atmosphere containing trace of CO₂ and N_2,H₂and O_2.

-Surface temperature varies from -34 to 40

-Orbital time period is 687 days and  axis time period is 24 hours 37 minutes.

-distance from sun is 2.2×10⁸ km

-Two polar caps of snow are seen at the two end of planet.

 v)Jupiter:

Features: -Largest planet i.e. 319 times larger than that of earth.

-Have highest or 67 satellites  i.e. largest 4 satellite are callisto,Io, Uropa,and Ganymed.

-surface temperature is about -143

-Surface contains red spot due to presence of disorder like hurricane .

-Orbital time period is1 2 years  and axis time period is 9 hours 55 minutes hours

 vi)Saturn:

Features: -Surrounded by 3 electrical rings and 2^nd largest planet i.e 95 times more than earth..

-distance from sun is 1.44×10⁹km.

-Orbital time period is 29.5 years and axis time period is 10 hours 30 minutes.

-Surface temperature is about -180 and surface consist of H₂ and He.

-Have 62 satellites and largest satellite is Titan.

vii)Uranus:

Features: -Third largest planet looks like greenish blue disk due to

-It only rotates on its axis from east to west while other rotate west to east --distance from sun is 2.87×10⁹km.

viii)Neptune:

Features: -Farthest and coldest planet.

-Have 14 satellite i.e. Tritron  is largest satellite.

-Surface temperature is -220 and  thick cloud of atmosphere containing H₂,He, and Methane.

-Orbital time period is 164 years and axis time period is 16 hours 6 minute 36 second.

-Distance from sun is about 4.48 ×10⁹km.

 Pluto (Dwarf planet): Due to following reason Pluto is not considered as a planet of solar system:

i)The size of Pluto is very small as compared to the average size of other planets.

ii)The  orbit of Pluto is coincided with the orbit of the Neptune .

Now days it is called dwarf planet .

Inner planet or terrestrial planet: The four nearest planet to the sun i.e. Mercury ,Venus ,earth, and

Mars are called inner planet .Their structure is similar to the earth so called terrestrial planet

Outer planet: The satellites which are located outside the orbit of the mars i.e. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are called outer planet .Their structure is similar to that of the Jupiter .

Features :i)They are made up from gases.

ii)They have large number of natural satellite .

iii)They have ring system around them i.e. saturn.

 Asteroid: The tiny planet which revolves around the sun in the space between orbit of mars and Jupiter are called asteroid or small planet or baby planet or minor planet or planetoids .The diameter of largest asteroid i.e. ceres is about 800km and other small asteroid having diameter  is about 1.6 km to 3.2 km. For example: Ceres, Vesta, Juno, Erars, Pallas,Hygiea etc.It help to give information about planet and sun .

Satellite: The heavenly bodies which revolves around the planets in their own orbit are called satellite .They are 2 types :

i)Natural satellite: The satellites occurring naturally are called natural satellites .For example :-Mercury and venue have not natural satellite

-Earth have one natural satellite i.e. moon.

-Mars have two natural satellite i.e .Phobos,  Diemos.

-Jupiter have 67 natural satellites.i.e.IO,Europa

-Saturn have 62 natural satellites i.e.Titan

-Uranus have 27 natural satellites i.e.Titania

-Neptune have 14 natural satellites i.e.Triton

Moon:

Features  -Natural satellite of the Earth and 384,400 km away from the earth.

-The diameter of the moon is  3476 km.

-Have not atmosphere and water .

-Surface temperature varies from 125 to 130 within 24 hours .

-The gravity is 1.66m/s².

-The moon takes 27.33 days to complete one revolution around the earth is called a sidereal month.

-The period from one full moon to another full moon is about 29.5 is called  

   synodic month

ii)Artificial satellite: The man made satellites are called artificial satellites .The artificial satellites are kept at a geo-stationary orbit at a height of 369000km from the earth’s surface.IN SAT(Indian national satellite).

Purpose  for lunching artificial satellite:

i)For teli communication i.e. radio, television ,telephone ,fax etc.

ii)For weather forecasting .

iii) for gathering information about other heavenly bodies.

iv)For surveying natural disasters .

v)to send human being into space,

vi)To build space research stations or sky lab in the moon.

Vii)To prepare maps ,and find out natural resources .

Comet: The heavenly bodies which revolving around the sun in very long elliptical orbit having bright head with long tail are called comet. It is made up from collection gases ,dust particles and ice . It some time comes very close to the sun and most of times remains for away from the sun ,so when it  comes closer to the sun large amount ice and gases change into vapor and go away from sun its small amount ice change into vapor  and get thrown into space in opposite direction of the sun forming the tail ,therefore the tail of comet increases when it comes closer to the sun and decreases when it moves away from the sun .The comet has3 parts : 

i)Nucleus:The central solid  brightest mass made up of frozen gas ,ice,and dust is called Nucleus.

 ii)Coma: The surrounded parts of nucleus by  Ice and dust is  is known as coma.

  iii)Tail

For examples:i) Halley comet ii) Temple- tutle iii)Enke iv)Schwasman Wasman  v)Bennett  vi)Shoemaker Levy = collied with Jupiter and collapsed in 1994  A.D.

Comet are seen after a  long period because ,comet revolves around very long elliptical orbit .Therefore it take many year to complete revolution around the sun .For example Halley’s comet complete one revolution around the sun after 76 years ,so comet is seen after only after long period.

 A comet is not actually star due following reasons:

i)Comet revolves around the sun in elliptical orbit where as the star does not revolves around  the sun .

ii)Comet is made up from the mixture of dust particles ,gases, and ice where as the star is burning and twinkling object made up from hydrogen and helium gas.

iii)Comet are not  luminous bodies where as star are luminous bodies.

iv)Comet are seen only after a long period of time where as star are continuous twinkling bodies.

Differences between Meteors and Meteorites :

Meteors	Meteorites
i-A small pieces of rocks or metal or both which burn and vaporize completely in the atmosphere due to friction between object and atmosphere are called Meteors or shooting star,or falling star. ii-It does not reach to the earth surface. iii-The mass of Meteor is less than that meteorites.	i-A huge piece of rocks or metal or both which does not burn and burn completely in atmosphere due to friction between object and atmosphere is called Meteorite. ii-It reach on the earth surface and form creator on the surface of earth. iii-The mass of Meteorite is more than that of meteor.

Types of Meteorites:  They are 3 types :

i-Stony Meteorite: They have more silicon than that of iron and Magnessium.

ii-Iron Meteorite :They have more iron than that of silicon.

iii-Stony iron meteorite: They have equal amount of iron and silicon.

 Constellation: The closed group of star which appear in the form recognizable shape and pattern i.e. human being, animals is called constellation .There are 88 constellation known and named ,out of which 12 constellation are used as sign or zodiac(Rashis) For example :Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, Cepheus, Cassiopeia, Orion(kalpunish); Zodic i.e Leo, etc. Ursa major is a constellation that can be seen with our naked eyes.

i-Ursa Major or Great bear or saptarishi: It consist of 7 stars .It can be seen in the month of April.

ii-Ursa Minor or Little bear or Laghu saptarishi : It also consist of 7 stars .It similar to ursa major but only difference is that the star are closer together and appear like a little bear and the at the end of ursa Minor is pole star.

It can be seen in the of July.

iii-Orion  or kalpunish:It also consist of 7 star .It can be seen in the month of poush and Magh .

iv)Zodic (Rashis): There are 12 constellation in the zodiac family :

i)Aries (Mesh) ii) Taurus (brish)    iii)Gemini(Mithun)  iv)Cancer(Karcat) v)Leo(Singh)  vi)Vigo(Kanya)   vii)Libra(Tula) viii)Scopio(Brichik) ix) Sagittarius(Dhanu)  x)Capricom (maker) xi)aquarius(Kumbh) xii)pisces(Min)

Superstitions regarding zodiac :Some examples of blind faiths having no any scientific reasons about Zodiac or constellation:

i)There is no any scientific reasons to determine to determine the fate and future of individual with their zodiac.

ii)Many important task i.e. new business ,construction of house ,travelling are done on basis of position of moon of certain zodiac . it have no any scientific  reasons .

iii)It is believed  by many people  that the attitude of a person will be accordingly the nature of their zodiac .It have no any scientific reason because it depends on their genetic.

Importance of constellation:

 i)It is used to know about weather .

ii)It help to the position of other stars .

iii)Study of the constellation help us to the study about other heavenly bodies.

iv)It help us to know about good or bad future .

Galaxy: The group of billion of stars ,clusters ,dust and gas all held together by the gravity is called galaxy. There are about 10¹² galaxies in the universe .All the stars of galaxies revolve around the hypothetical center is called galactic center or Nucleus .The diameters of galaxies varies from 1 thousand to 100 thousand light years .for example :Milky way galaxy ,Andromeda galaxy.

Types of galaxy: On the basis of shape there are 3 types galaxies:

i)Spiral galaxy: They are spiral in shape and consist of central part is called nucleus .They are brighter than that of other galaxies .for example: milky way ,Andromeda etc.

ii)Elliptical galaxy: They are elliptical in shape and look like flat elliptical disc For example: NCG 448b,Fonax,Sulptor etc.

iii)Irregular galaxy:They are irregular in shape and less bright than that of spiral galaxy.For example :NCG 6822,IC 559.

 Milky way Galaxy(Akas ganga): The spiral galaxy appears like a river of milk in the night sky running from the south to north containing about 100 billion of stars is called Milky way galaxy. We and our solar system is located in that galaxy. The Time taken by the sun to revolve around the galactic center is about 250 million years is called cosmic year.

 Geocentric theory:  According to geocentric theory earth is at the center and sun ,moon and other planets revolve around the earth .

Heliocentric Theory: According to heliocentric  theory sun is at the center and other planets ,satellite are revolving in their own orbit .This theory is the theory of present world.