Biology grade -10 (New Course)
Biology /Grade -10 (New Course)
Unit -2 Classification of Living being
Classification
:The process of grouping of the living being into various groups and sub
groups on the basis of similar and dissimilar characteristics is called
classification .
Importance
of classification :
i)It makes the study of plants and animals easier ,scientific and systematic
.
ii)It help the understand the relation between various group of plants
and animals .
iv)It gives the ideas about the evolution of plants and animals .
v)It help to brings
uniformity in the study of living organism all over the
world .
Nomenclature
:The system of providing scientific name to all the living
organism is called nomenclature .
Binomial
system of nomenclature :The naming of each organism by two
words a generic name and specific name is known as binomial system of
nomenclature .For example :scientific name of human being is Homo sapiens ,where Home is the name of the
genus and sapiens is the name of species .
Genus
:A genus is the closely related species .For example :All true cats like lion
,tiger,and domestic cats are kept in the genus Panthera or Felis .
Species
: The closely related organisms having almost similar
characteristics ,and
can interbreed freely and produce healthy offspring is called
species. For example : All types of human being through out the world are
kept in
same
species i.e. sapiens
Scientific
name of some common organism
Common name Scientific name
1.Pea plant Pisum satvum
2.Onion
Alium cepia
3.Mango
Mangifera indica
4.Wheat
Triticum astivum
5.Mustard
Brassica compestris
6.Sun flower
Helianthus annus
7.Rice
Oryza sativa
8.Orange
Citrus sinensis
9.Maze
Zea mays
10. Potato
Solanum
tuberosum
11. Tiger Panthera Tigris
12Horse Equus caballus
13. Buffalow
Babalus bubalis
14. Cat Felis domesticus
15. Cobra Naja naja
16. Lion Panthera leo
17. Dog
Canis lupus
18. Cow
Bos taurus
Two
system of classification of organism :Carolous Linnaeus divided living
organism into two kingdom i.e. 1)Plant kingdom 2.)Animal
kingdom .This is known as two system of classification of organism .It
is also called oldest system of classification .
Drawbacks
of two system of classification of organism :
i)Prokaryotes
and eukaryotes are put together .
ii)Green
and non green plant are put together .
iii) Bacteria
could not be classified as plants or animals in two system of classification .
Five
system of classification of organisms : American scientist Robert H. Whitaker divided living
organism into five
into five kingdom .This is known as five system of classification .It is also
regarded as
best and widely accepted classification of system .
Advantages
of five system of classification of organisms :
i)Eukaryotes
and prokaryotes are kept separately .
ii)The
unicellular and multi cellular are kept separately .
iii) The
green and non green plants are kept separately .
A.) Kingdom
Monera
B.) Kingdom
Protista
C.) Kingdom
Fungi
D.) Kingdom
plantae
1.)Division –Algae
Characteristics :
i)They are green autotrophic due to presence of chlorophyll .
iii)They store food in the form starch .
For example :Spirogyra, volvox, chalmydomonas ,ulothrix, etc .
Fig. Spyrogyra
2.)Division :Bryophyta
Characteristics :
i)They are multi cellular plants .
iii)They are green autotrophic due to presence of chlorophyll.
iv)They requires water for fertilization so also called amphibian plants .
For example :Moss , liver worts , marchantia ,riccia, etc.
Fig. Riccia
Division :Trachaeophyta
Characteristics :
i) They are green autotrophic due to presence of
ii)They have vascular tissues i.e. xylem and phloem.
iii)The plant body is well develop.i.e. differentiae into root stem and leaf .
iv)They are mostly terrestrial .
Characteristics :
i) They are green autotrophic due to presence of
ii)They have vascular tissues i.e. xylem and phloem.
iii)The plant body is well develop.i.e. differentiae into root stem and leaf .
iv)They mostly grow in moist ,shady, and cool places .
Fig. Fern Fig. Horse tail
2.)Sub –division :Gymnosperm
Characteristics :
ii)They are cone bearing plants .
iii)They have naked seeds, which are not enclosed in fruits .
vi) They have vascular tissues i.e. xylem and phloem.
For example :Cycas ,pinus etc.
Fig. Pinus Fig. Cycus
3.)Sub division –Angiosperm
Characteristics :
i)They are found in water and land.
iv)The seeds are enclosed inside fruits .
vi)The sub division angiosperm on basis of present of cotyledon on their seeds is also divided into two classes :a)Monocotyledon b)Di cotyledon
a)Class -Mono cotyledon: The plants which contains only one cotyledon in their seeds are called monocotyledon plants .
i)They have only one cotyledon in their seeds .
ii)They have adventitious or fibrous root system.
iii)They have parallel venation in their leaves .
For example :wheat ,barley, bamboo, sugarcane ,onion, garlic etc.
Fig . Showing monocotyledon roots and seed
b) Class –Di cotyledon: The plants which contains two cotyledon in their seeds are called Di cotyledon plants .
i)They have two cotyledon in their seeds .
v) They are usually woody plants
For examples :Pea, gram, bean, orange, mustard etc.
Fig. Showing dicotyledon root, seed, and leaf
5.)Kingdom-Animalia
B.)Sub Kingdom-Vertebrate
A.)Sub kingdom-Invertebrate:The animal which does not contains vertebral column is called invertebrate .Invertebrates are divided into 8 phylum :
Characteristics :
i)They are aquatic ,mostly marine.
ii)They do not move from one place to another place ,so they are called sessile.
iii)They bears numerous pores to their body i.e. small pores are called ostia, and large pores are called osculum. Water enters to their body through ostia and leaves through osculum.
iv)They are simplest, multicellular, diploblastic i.e. body consist of 2 layers i)ectoderm ii)endoderm.
v)They are hermaphrodite i.e body bears both male and female sex.
For example : Sycon, spongilla, sponge .
Fig. Sycon Fig .Spongila
2.)Coelenterata :
Characteristics :
i)They are aquatic ,mostly marine.
ii)They have hollow internal cavity is called coelenterons.
iii)They are multi cellular and diploblastic .
iv)Tentacles are present in the mouth that help to capture the prey.
v)They are unisexual or bisexual .
For example :Hydra, Jelly fish, sea anemone, corals .
Fig. Hydra Fig. Jelly fish
3.)Phylum-Platyhelminthes :
Characteristics :
i)They are mostly parasite .
ii)They are dorso-ventrally flattened like leaf, so also called flat worm
iii)They are triploblastic i.e. body contains three layers i)ectoderm ii)mesoderm iii)endoderm
iv)The body is bilaterally symmetrical
v)The mouth is surrounded by hooks that help to attachment with host and consist of sucker to absorb blood from host.
vi)They are hermaphrodite .
For example :Tape worm ,Planeria, Liver fluke etc.
Fig. Hydra Fig. Jelly fish
Fig . Planaria
4.)Nemathelminthes :
Characteristics :
i)They are mostly parasite .
ii)The body is cylindrical ,elongated ,and unsegmented .
iii)The body is bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic .
iv)They are unisexual .
For example :Round worm, Hookworm etc.
Fig. Hook worm Fig .Round worm
5.)Phylum –Annelida
Characteristics :
i)They are mostly aquatic and moist place.
ii)They are cylindrical ,elongated and segmented .
iii)They are hermaphrodite .
For example :Leech, Earthworm, Nereis etc.
Fig. Leech Fig. Earth worm
6.)Phylum-Arthopoda
Characteristics:
i)They are found in air water and land everywhere .It is also called largest phylum of invertebrate .
ii)The body is divided into head, thorax and abdomen but in some head and thorax are fused to form cephalothorax .
iii) The body is triploblastic and bialaterally symmetrical .
iv)The body consist of joint legs .
v)They are unisexual .
vi) The phylum arthropoda is also divided into 4 classes :
For example :Butterfly, Mosquito,Crab, Scorpion etc.
a)Class-Crustacea
Characteristics :
i)They have 5 pairs of legs .
ii)The body is divided into cephalothorax and abdomen .
iii)The head bears two pairs of antennae .
iv)Respiration takes place by gills .
For example :Crab, Prawn etc.
Fig. Prawn
b)Class –Insecta
Characteristics :
i)They have 3 pairs of legs .
ii)Body is divided into head ,thorax and abdomen .
iii)The head bears one pairs of antennae .
iv)Respiration takes place by trachea .
For example .;Mosquito, House fly, Cockroach etc.
Fig .House fly
c)Class –Arachnida
Characteristics :
i)They have 4 pairs of legs .
ii)The body is divided into cephalothorax and abdomen .
iii)The bears one pairs of legs .
iv)Respiration takes place by trachea .
For example :Spider, Scorpion ,Mite etc.
Fig. Spider
d)Class -Myriapoda
Characteristics :
i)They have many pairs of legs.
ii)The body divided into head and trunks .
iii)The bears one pairs of antennae .
iv)Respiration takes place by trachea .
For example :Centipede ,Millipede etc.
7.)Phylum-Mollusca
Characteristics :
i)They are mostly found in aquatic and damp place. It is also called second largest phylum of invertebrate .
ii)The body is soft ,unsegmented ,and covered with hard shell called calcareous shell .
iii)The body is triploblastic ,and bialaterally symmetrical .
iv)Respiration takes place by gills or lungs .
For example :Pila ,Slug, Octopus ,Snail etc.
Fig. Octopus Fig. Pila
8.)Phylum –Echinodermata
Characteristics :
i)They are mostly found in marine .
ii)The body are provided with numerous spines.
iii) The locomotion takes place by tube feet .
iv)They are unisexual .
v)Respiration takes place by gills ,respiratory trees .
For example : Starfish ,Sea urchin, Sea cucumber, sea lily etc.
B)Sub kingdom :-Vertebrate :It consist of phylum chordate
Characteristics :i)They possess an unsegmented elastic rod like structure called notochord in the dorsal axis of the body .
iii)Reproduction takes place only by sexual method .
iv) It is also further classified into four sub phylum :
1)Hemichordata ii)Urochordata
iii)Cephalochordata iv) Vertebrata
Sub Phylum :Vertebrata
Characteristics :
i)They vertebral column in their body .
ii)The brain lodged into a box i.e. cranium.
iii)The endoskeleton is made up from bone or cartilage .
iv)All vertebrate have a heart and a closed circulatory system .
v)They may be cold blooded or worm blooded .
vi) They are oviparous or viviparous .
vii) it is also further divided into 5 classes :
1)Pisces 2) Amphibia
3)Reptilia 4) Aves
5)Mammals
Characteristics :
i)They have streamline bodies adopted for aquatic life.
ii)Endoskeleton is made up from bone .
iii)Body is covered with scales and respire with gills .
iv)They have fins for locomotion .
v)They have 2 chambered heart .
vi)They are cold blooded ,oviparous ,and fertilization is external .
For example :All types of fishes i.e. rohu, Sea horse, Flying
2)Class : Amphibia
Characteristics
i)They live in both land and water ,so also called amphibian.
ii)They have thin moist and smooth skin .
iii)Body is divided into head and trunk .
iv)They have 2 chambered heart .
v)They are cold blooded ,oviparous ,and fertilization is external .
v)They respires through skin and lungs .
For example : Toad ,Hyla( tree frog) ,Frog , salamander etc.
3)Class : Reptilia
Characteristics
i)They are mostly terrestrial and some are aquatics .
ii)body is dry and covered with scales .
iii)They are creeping animal .
iv)They have 3 chambered heart .
v)They are cold blooded ,oviparous and fertilization is internal .
vi)The body is divided into head ,neck trunk and tail .
For example :Wall lizard , garden lizard , turtle , snake ,squirrel crocodiles etc.
4)Class :Aves
Characteristics
i)The body is covered with feathers .
ii)The body is divided into head ,neck trunk and tail .
iii)They are worm blooded ,oviparous and fertilization is internal .
iv)They have 4 chambered heart .
v)They have 2 pairs of limbs .The fore limbs are modified into wing and hind limb into wings .
For example :All birds i.e. Parrot ,Pigion, danphe etc.
5.) Class :Mammalia
Characteristics
i)They are adopted in all habitat .i.e. land, water and air .
ii)The body is divided into head ,neck ,trunk and tail .
iii)The body is covered with hair .
iv)They have mammary glands .
v)They have 4 chambered heart .
vi)They are worm blooded ,viviparous and fertilization is internal .
For example : Man , Whale , bat ,Rabbit, cow etc.
1.)Classify the following animals with a suitable characteristics :
1)Chlamydomonas
Classification
Kindom :Plantae
Division :Algae
Example: Chlamydomonas
Characteristics :
i)They are mostly aquatic .
Classification
Kingdom:Plantae
Division: Bryophyta
Example :Marchantia
Characteristics
i)They are green autotrophic due to presence of chlorophyll.
3.)Fern
Classification
Kingdom:Plantae
Division : Trachaephyta
Sub-division :Pteridophyta
Example: Fern
Characteristics
i)They have vascular tissues i.e. Xylem and Phloem
4) Pinus
Classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division : Trachaephyta
Sub-division: Gymnosperm
Example: Pinus
Characteristics
i)They have naked seed ,which are not enclosed in fruit .
5)Mango
Classification
Kingdom :Plantae
Division: Trachaephyta
Sub- division :Gymnosperm
Class : Di cotyledon
Example :Mango
Characteristics
i)They have only two cotyledon in seed .
6.)Rice
Classification
Kingdom :Plantae
Division: Trachaephyta
Sub-division : Gymnosperm
Class :Monocotyledon
Example: Rice
Characters
i)They have fibrous root .
2.)Classify the following animal with one suitable characteristics .
Classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum :Porifera
Example: Sponge
Characteristics
i)They are mostly marine .
2.)Hydra
Classification
Kingdom :plantae
Phylum : Coelenterata
Example : Hydra
Characteristics
i)Tentacles are present in the mouth .
3.)Earthworm
Classification
Kingdom :Animalia
Phylum :Annelida
Example :Eartworm
Characteristics
i)They are hermaphrodite .
4.)Starfish
Classification
Kingdom:Animalia
Phylum: Echinodermata
Example :Starfish
Characteristics
i)They are mostly marine .
5.)Sea horse
Classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Sub- phylum :Vertebrata
Class : Pisces
Characteristics :They respire with gills .
6.)Frog
Classification
Kingdom :Animalia
Phylum :Chordata
Sub-phylum: Vertebrata
Class: Amphibia
Example :Frog
Characteristics:
i)They live in both land and water .
7)Man
Classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Sub-Phylum: Vertebrata
Class :Mammalia
Example :Man
Characteristics
i)They respire with lungs .
Mosquito
Mosquito
Kingdom:Animalia
Phylum:Arthopoda
Class :Insecta
Example :Mosquito
Relation between classification and Evolution :
Classification
is the process of grouping organisms together based on their shared
characteristics.ie
physical features, such as the number of
legs or the presence of fur, or on behavioral features, way they reproduce or
the type of food they eat.
Evolution
is the process by which populations of organisms change over time. This can happen
through natural
selection, which is the process by which organisms with traits that are better
suited to their environment to survive and
reproduce, passing on their genes to the next generation.
These
two concepts are closely related because
classification can be used to track the evolutionary relationships between
different groups of organisms. For example, all mammals share certain characteristics,
such as fur, mammary glands, and the ability to give birth to live young. This suggests
that all
mammals evolved from a common ancestor.
1.Kingdom
Monera includes all prokaryotic
organisms, which are organisms that do not have a nucleus in their cells. they are thought
to have been the first
organisms to evolve on Earth.
2.Kingdom
Protista includes all unicellular
eukaryotes, which are organisms that have a nucleus in their cells but are not
multicellular.
Questions for Practise
A.Multiple Choice Questions
1. What is the phylum of animals commonly referred to as sponges?
a) Porifera
b) Cnidaria
c) Nematoda
d) Mollusca
2. What is the phylum of animals commonly referred to as jellyfish and
corals?
a) Porifera
b) Cnidaria
c) Nematoda
d) Mollusca
3. What is the phylum of animals commonly referred to as roundworms?
a) Porifera
b) Cnidaria
c) Nematoda
d) Mollusca
4. What is the phylum of animals commonly referred to as segmented worms?
a) Annelida
b) Mollusca
c) Echinodermata
d) Chordata
5. What is the phylum of animals commonly referred to as insects,
spiders, and crustaceans?
a) Porifera
b) Cnidaria
c) Nematoda
d) Arthropoda
6. What is the phylum of animals commonly referred to as starfish and
sea urchins?
a) Echinodermata
b) Mollusca
c) Annelida
d) Chordata
7. What is the phylum of animals with a notochord at some point in their
development?
a) Mollusca b)
Chordata
c) Echinodermata d) Arthropoda
8. Which class of Chordata includes animals that have a bony skeleton
and gills for breathing?
a) Pisces b)
Amphibia
c) Reptilia d)
Mammalia
9. Which class of Chordata includes animals that are able to live both
on land and in water?
a) Pisces b) Amphibia
c) Reptilia d)
Mammalia
10. Which class of Chordata includes animals that have feathers and
wings for flight?
a) Pisces b)
Amphibia
c) Aves d)
Mammalia
11. Which class of Chordata includes animals that have hair or fur, and
produce milk to feed their young?
a) Pisces b)
Amphibia
c) Reptilia d)
Mammalia
12. What is the phylum of animals that have a well-defined head with a
brain and a complete digestive system?
a) Annelida b) Mollusca
c) Echinodermata d) Nematoda
13. What is the phylum of animals that have jointed appendages and an
exoskeleton made of chitin?
a) Porifera b)
Cnidaria
c) Nematoda d)
Arthropoda
14. What is the phylum of animals that have a water vascular system and
tube feet used for movement?
a) Echinodermata b) Mollusca
c) Annelida d)
Chordata
15. What is the phylum of animals that have a closed circulatory system?
a) Porifera b)
Cnidaria
c) Nematoda d) Annelida
16. What is the phylum of animals that have a segmented body and are
hermaphroditic?
a) Annelida b)
Echinodermata
c) Mollusca d)
Chordata
17. Which class of Chordata includes animals that have a three-chambered
heart and lay eggs with leathery shells?
a) Pisces b)
Amphibia
c) Reptilia d)
Mammalia
18. Which class of Chordata includes animals that have a four-chambered
heart and are warm-blooded?
a) Pisces b)
Amphibia
c) Reptilia d)
Mammalia
19. What is the phylum of animals that have a hydrostatic skeleton and
longitudinal muscles for movement?
a) Annelida b) Nematoda
c) Echinodermata d) Mollusca
20. What is the phylum of animals that have a bony skeleton and paired
fins for swimming?
a) Pisces b)
Amphibia
c) Reptilia d)
Mammalia
21. What is the phylum of animals that have a water vascular system and
a central disk with arms for movement and feeding?
a) Echinodermata
b) Mollusca
c) Annelida d) Chordata
22. Which class of Chordata includes animals that have smooth, moist
skin and breathe through their skin?
a) Pisces b)
Amphibia
c) Reptilia d) Mammalia
23. Which class of Chordata includes animals that have feathers, lay
eggs, and have a beak instead of teeth?
a) Pisces b)
Amphibia
c) Aves d)
Mammalia
24. What is the phylum of animals that have a notochord, dorsal nerve
cord, and gill slits at some point in their development?
a) Chordata b)
Annelida
c) Echinodermata d) Mollusca
25.Which kingdom includes all multicellular organisms that are not
plants?
a)Kingdom Animalia b)Kingdom Plantae
c)Kingdom Fungi d)Kingdom
Protista
26.Which of the following is not a characteristic of animals?
a)They are multicellular. b)They are heterotrophic.
c)They have cell walls. d)They can move.
27.Why are animals heterotrophic?
a)Because they cannot make their own food. b)Because they need to eat other organisms
to survive.
c)Because they have cell walls. d)Because they are
multicellular.
28.Why do animals need to move?
a)To find food.
b)To escape predators.
c)To reproduce.
d.)All of the above.
29.A scientist is studying a new species of animal. The animal has a
segmented body, a hard exoskeleton, and jointed legs. What phylum does the
animal belong to?
a)Chordata
b)Arthropoda
c)Mollusca
d)Echinodermata
30.A farmer is trying to control a population of pests in his field. He
knows that the pests are insects. What class of arthropod do the pests belong
to?
a)Insecta b)Arachnida
c)Myriapoda d)Crustacea
B.Very short Questions - 1marks
Knowledge
types
1. Which phylum of animals includes
sponges?
14.
Why are
animals classified into different phyla?
15. What are
the similarities and differences between the different phyla of animals?
Application types
16. A
scientist is studying a new species of animal. The animal has a segmented body,
a hard exoskeleton, and jointed legs. What phylum does the animal belong to?
19. Discuss
the importance of classification in biology.
20. Explain
the evolutionary relationships between the different phyla of animals.
C. Short Questons
2
marks
2.Mention the kingdoms according to five
kingdom system of classification.
Write an example of each.
3.Who is called the father of taxonomy?
Why?
4.Give reasons
a) All vertebrates are chordates but all
chordates are not vertebrates.
b) The whale is classified as a mammal.
c)Anglosperms are
more developed than gymnosperms.
d) Maize is a
monocot and mango is a dicot plant.
5. Write any two
differences between:
a) Bird and Bat b) Maize and Mustard
c)Poikilothermic
and Homoeothermic animals
d) Fish and Frog e) Sea-horse and Land horse
f)Whale and Fish
6..Write any two characteristic features
of Spirogyra
7. Why are
bryophytes called amphibian of plants?
8. Why are
pteridophytes also called cryptogams?
9. Differentiate
between monocotyledonous plant and dicotyledonous plant in two points
10. Write any two
functions of tentacles in the body of coelenterates.
11. Write any two
differences between sea horse and horse.
12. All vertebrates
are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates. Give reason.
13. Write any two
characteristic features of crocodiles.
14. Write any two
points of differences between bird and bat.
10. Why are human
beings called warm blooded animals?
(Understanding Type Questions)
15.. Write any two
differences between moss and fern.
16. Volvox is kept
in the division Algae and moss is kept in division bryophyta why ? Give reason
17. Fern is
considered as the most developed plant among cryptogams, why?
Give any two
reasons.
18. Write any two
differences between jelly fish and starfish
19. Sea horse is
kept in class pisces and horse is kept in class mammalia, why?
18 Write any two
differences between bird and bat.
19. Differentiate between:
a. Moss and Fern
b). Fern and Rose
c). Cycas and
Mustard
d.) Sea horse and
horse
e) Frog and snake
f). Parrot and Bat
D.Long Questions . 4 marks
.1. Classify the following living
organism and give one characteristic of each
a) Banana b) Mustard c) Cow d) Frog e) Tortoise
f) Duck
g) Pistia h) Sea-hors
2. Place the following living organisms
into their classes in case of animals and divisions in case of plants. Also
write one general character of each.
a) Whale b) Asla c) Wall lizard d) Pine e) Pea
f) Coconut h) Bat g)
Rose
3. Identify the
class of the animal with the given salient features.
a) The skin is soft
and moist, absence of neck and fertilization is external, having aquatic
tadpole and external fertilization.
b) The body is
covered with scales, breathing by lungs, having backbone but no external ear.
c) It can fly, give
birth to young one and suckle it.
d) The body is covered with hairs, having
mammary glands, diaphragm, pinnae and internal fertilization
4. Arrange the following
animals in increasing advance and write down their
class.
a) Snake b) Pigeon c) Frog d)
Whale e) Asla
5 Write down any four major
characteristics of mammals.
6. Identify:
a) mammal which can
fly.
b) bird which
cannot fly.
c) reptile with
four-chambered heart.
d) reptile without limbs. .
7.Write down any
two distinct characters of the following.
a) Chordata b)
Vertebrata c) Reptilia d) Amphibia
8. Mention the
relation of evolution with the classification of living beings.
9. Which two
kingdoms include unicellular organisms? Write two distinct characteristics of
each with examples.
10. Name the
kingdom of multicellular decomposers. Write their two
characteristic
features. How do they differ from kingdom plantae?
11. Draw a neat
diagram of the following.
a) Amoeba
Higher
abilities
Hydra, Vulture,
Crocodile, Cycas, Moss, Fern, Spirogyra, Hookworm.
13. Identify the
phylum and class of animal studying the given salient features:
a Body is covered
with furs and feathers, have internal fertilization but lay eggs.
b. Breathing
through lungs, presence of mammary glands.
c. Having jointed
appendages, a pair of antennae on their head and are triploblastic
d. Fixed, aquatic,
diploblastic and have porous body.
14. Explain the relationship between
classification and evolution of living organisms.
Application
Type Questions
15. What is the
advantage of classification of living beings? Write in any 3 points.
16. Write down two
characteristics of the living beings belonging to Kingdom Plantae with any two
examples.
17. Write down two
characteristics of the plants belonging to division Bryophyta and write any two
examples
18. Write down two
salient features of the plants belonging to division Gymnosperms with any two
examples
19. How are
classification and evolution interlinked? Describe
20. Classify the animal shown in the
figure and write any two characteristics.
21. Write any two
differences between fish and frog on the basis of habitat and structure of
heart.
22. Name the phylum
of the animals having following features
a)Having segmented
body, hermaphrodite
b). Moves with the
help of tentacles, found in marine water
c). Having sucker,
flat and segmented body
d). Soft body with
a hard cover, having tentacles
23. What types of
animals are called mammals? Write down three characteristics of these animals.
How do they differ from reptiles.
24. Name the class
of the animals having given features. Also, give an example of each.
a)Breathe through
gills, having scales
b)Having external ears, give birth directly to
young ones
c). Having webbed
feet, live on both land and in water
d)Fly in air, lay
eggs
Unit -3 Honey bee
Honey Bee
Classification
Kingdom - Animalia
Phylum - Arthropoda
Class - Insecta
Example - Honey bee
1.)Introduction
Honey bee have developed one of most of the most highly organized societies with division of labour so they are called social insect .They feed on pollen and nectar of flower and manufacture honey and wax .A hive contains about 4000- 8000 bees but male are haploid contains16 chromosomes and female are diploid contains 32 chromosomes .In Nepal only two families are common honey producing bee ie Apis mellifera and Apis cerana.
Apiculture :The rearing of honey bees for commercial propose is known as apiculture .
Apicology: The process of scientific study of honey bee is called apicology.
2.)Structure :
The body of honey is divided into 3 parts ie Head , thorax and abdomen. Head consist of a pair of compound eye ,three small simple on the top of head ,a pair of antennae and mouth parts ,thorax consist of 3pairs of legs and 2 pairs wings and long segmented abdomen .
Types of honey bees : There are 3 types honey bee in a beehive .
i.)Queen bee :-They are larger than that of drone bee and worker bee and small legs .A single hive contains only a single queen bee. Queen bee is the single fertile female in a hive and formed from fertilized egg .They are unable to produce wax and honey or gather pollen or nectar .Queen bee also produce a special smell by which other bee find out their colony .
Functions :-i)Queen bee lays eggs after fertilization.
ii)Queen bee controls and regulate all the bees according to necessary .
ii)Drone bee :-The drone bee is a fertile male which is larger than that worker bee and smaller than that of queen bee .A single hive contains about 100 drone bees and formed from unfertilized egg but they die after mating with the queen. They are more feeder , stingless and do not work .
Functions :- i)The functions of drone bee is to fertilize the new queen bee.
ii)They help to keep the hive warm .
iii)worker bee :-The worker bee are sterile female (reproductive organ inactive) which is smaller than that of queen bee and drone bee . In a hive except queen and drone bee all bee are worker bee .The legs of worker bee are provided with pollen brush and pollen basket to collect pollen .
Functions :-i)Worker bee collect pollen, nectar ,and water for the colony.
ii)They repair the comb and clean the hive .
iii) They use the wings for ventilation and act as the guard at the main entrance hive .
iv)They also guard the stored pollen , honey also feeding developing and fight against enemies .
Parthenogenesis : The process of formation of honey bee from unfertilized egg (i.e. drone bee, After death of queen worker bee also produce worker from unfertilized egg ) is known as parthenogenesis.
Swarming : The
behaviour of honey bee to come out from the hive in large
number is called swarming .
3.)Life cycle :-The life cycle of honey is completed into 4 stages ie queen in 16 days, drone in 23.5 days, and worker in 21 days .in life cycle when queen become young , she attend a flight where several drone mates with her is also known as mating flight or nuptial flight .
Fig Life cycle of Honey bee
i)Egg:-In this stage after mating queen bee lays about 3000 eggs per day but 2 types of eggs ie fertilized eggs in queen cell and worker to form queen and worker bee and other unfertilized eggs in drone cell to produce drone bee
ii) Larva :- After days eggs change in to larva , the formation of larva of queen and worker depends on the diet received by larva .all larva are fed royal jelly (ie juice collected by worker ie mixture of honey and pollen)but after 3 days worker and drone are fed bee bread and is fed continue royal jelly .They are more active and feeder and moult their skin 4 times .
iii)Pupa:-In this stage worker bee the mouth of cell by wax cap and change into pupa stage and cover is known as puparium . The pupa of honey are inactive, and do not feed so also called rest stage .In this stage development of honey bee takes place inside puparium and process is known as histogenesis .
iv)Adult : The end of pupa stage ,pupa brust the caps and adult bee ie worker , queen, and drone comes out but when new queen comes out ,the old queen leaves out the hive with worker .This is also known as swarming .
4.)Economic importance of honey bee :
i)They supply us honey which is used for food ,medicine and other religious purpose .
ii)The bee hive provides us bee wax which is used for making soap, medicine, polish etc.
iii)They help in agriculture for pollination .
iv)The rearing of honey bee provides us employments.
Questions for Practise
A.Multiple
choice Questions - 1 mark
knowledge type:
1.What is the scientific name for the honey bee?
(A) Apis mellifera (B) Apis carnica
(C) Apis florae (D) Apis dorsata
2.What is the average lifespan of a honey bee?
(A) 6 weeks (B) 6 months
(C) 1 year (D)
2 years
3.What is the main function of the queen bee?
(A) Laying eggs
(B) Caring for the young
(C) Gathering food (D)
Building the hive
4.What is the main function of the worker bees?
(A) Laying eggs (B) Caring for the young
(C) Gathering food (D) Building the hive
5.What is the main function of the drone bees?
(A) Laying eggs (B) Caring for the young
(C) Gathering food (D) Fertilizing the
queen bee
understanding type Questions
6.Why are honey bees important to the environment?
(A) They pollinate
plants. (B) They
provide honey.
(C) They provide wax. (D) All of the above.
7.How do honey bees communicate with each other?
(A) Through pheromones. (B) Through dance.
(C) Through sound. (D) Through touch.
8.What is the purpose of the honeycomb?
(A) To store honey. (B) To store pollen.
(C) To raise young. (D) All of the above.
9.What is the purpose of the stinger?
(A) To defend the hive. (B) To gather pollen.
(C) To lay eggs. (D) To regulate
body temperature.
10What is the average temperature inside a honeybee hive?
(A) 60 degrees Fahrenheit (B) 70 degrees Fahrenheit
(C) 80 degrees Fahrenheit (D) 90 degrees Fahrenheit
Application type Questions
11.If you find a honey beehive in your yard, what should you do?
(A) Leave it alone. (B) Call a beekeeper.
(C) Destroy it. (D) Smoke it
out.
12How can you help to prevent honeybee colony collapse disorder?
(A) Plant bee-friendly flowers in your yard. (B) Avoid using pesticides.
(C) Support local beekeepers. (D) All of the above.
13.What can you do to attract honeybees to your garden?
(A) Plant bee-friendly flowers. (B) Provide a water source.
(C) Avoid using
pesticides. (D)
All of the above.
14.What is the best way to harvest honey from a honeybee hive?
(A) Use a smoker to calm the bees. (B) Wear protective gear.
(C) Harvest the honey
when the bees are not home. (D)
All of the above.
15.What is the best way to store honey?
(A) In a cool, dark
place.
(B) In a sealed container.
(C) In a refrigerator.
(D) All of the above.
Knowledge Type Questions:
16. How many pairs of wings do honey bees have?
a) One pair
b) Two pairs
c) Three pairs d) Four pairs
17. Which of the following is the primary food source for honey
bees?
a) Nectar b) Pollen
18. What is the function of the stinger in honey bees?
a) To lay eggs b) To gather
pollen
c) To defend the colony d) To build honeycombs
a) By singing b) By
dancing
c) By barking d) By
chirping
20. How many legs do honey bees have?
a) Four b) Six
c) Eight d)
Ten
21. What is the role of drones in the honey bee colony?
a) To gather nectar b) To protect the
colony
c) To mate with the queen d) To maintain the hive structure
22. How long does the average adult honey bee live?
a) A few days b) A few
weeks
c) A few months d) A few years
Understanding
Type Questions:
23. What is the purpose of the honey bee's proboscis?
a) To sting predators b) To gather nectar
c) To defend the colony d) To maintain temperature control
in the hive
24. What is the function of the honey bee's antennae?
a) To help the bee fly b) To sense touch and
smell
c) To gather nectar d) To defend the colony
25. How does the honey bee's caste system work?
a) All bees are equal and perform the same tasks
b) Bees are divided into
two castes: workers and drones
c) Bees are divided into three castes: workers, drones, and
queens
d) Bees are divided into four castes: soldiers, workers, drones,
and queens
26. What is the function of the wax glands in honey bees?
a) To help the bee fly
b) To produce honey
c) To secrete wax for building honeycombs d) To defend the colony
a) By flapping their wings b) By
clustering together
c) By fanning their wings d) By
huddling together
28. What is the role of the queen bee in the colony?
a) To gather nectar b)
To defend the colony
c) To mate with drones and lay eggs d) To maintain the hive
structure
29. How do honey bees produce honey?
a) By collecting and storing nectar in the honeycomb
b) By chewing pollen and mixing it with nectar
c) By secreting honey from their wax glands
d) By feeding on the nectar of specific flowers
Application Type Questions:
a) By providing them with pesticide-free plants and flowers
b) By destroying their hives to prevent stinging
c) By using pesticides to protect crops
d) By removing all plants and flowers from their environment
31. How can beekeepers collect honey from the hive without
harming the bees?
a) By smoking the bees to calm them down
b) By using pesticides to kill the bees
c) By removing the entire hive and extracting the honey
d) By crushing the honeycomb and filtering out the honey
32. How does honey production benefit humans?
a) Honey is a natural sweetener with many health benefits
b) Honey is a valuable commodity for trade and sale
c) Honey production supports local economies
d) All of the above
33. How do honey bees contribute to the ecosystem?
a) They are important pollinators for many plant species
b) They help to maintain biodiversity
c) They provide food for other animals
d) All of the above
Higher Abilities Type Questions:
34. Describe the life cycle of honey bees.
a) Egg, larva, pupa, adult b) Egg, pupa, larva, adult
c) Pupa, egg, larva, adult d) Adult, egg, larva, pupa
35. How do honey bees communicate with each other through dance?
a) By wiggling their antennae b) By flapping their wings
c) By shaking their abdomens
d) By spinning
in circles
a) By flapping their wings to create a breeze
b) By fanning their wings to circulate air
c) By clustering together to generate heat
d) By vibrating their wings to generate heat
37. How does the external morphology of honey bees differ
between castes?
a) Queens have longer wings than workers and drones
b) Drones are larger and have longer antennae than workers and
queens
c) Workers have larger eyes than queens and drones
d) Queens have shorter legs than workers and drones
B. Very short Questions
Knowledge Type Questions:
1. How many pairs of wings do honey bees have?
2. What is the primary food source for honey bees?
Answer: Nectar
3. What is the scientific name for the honey bee?
4. What is the function of the stinger in honey bees?
Answer: To defend the colony
5. How do honey bees communicate with each other?
Answer: By dancing
6. How many legs do honey bees have?
7. What is the role of drones in the honey bee colony?
8. How long does the average adult honey bee live?
Answer: A few weeks
Understanding
Type Questions:
9. What is the purpose of the honey bee's proboscis?
Answer: To gather nectar
10. What is the function of the honey bee's antennae?
Answer: To sense touch and smell
11. How does the honey bee's caste system work?
12. How do honey bees use propolis?
Answer: To seal cracks and gaps in the hive
13. What is the function of the wax glands in honey bees?
Answer: To secrete wax for building honeycombs
14. How do honey bees maintain the temperature in the hive?
Answer: By clustering together
15. What is the role of the queen bee in the colony?
16. How do honey bees produce honey?
Answer: By collecting and storing nectar in the honeycomb
Application
Type Questions:
17. How can humans help honey bees?
Answer: By providing them with pesticide-free plants and flowers
18. How can beekeepers collect honey from the hive without
harming the bees?
Answer: By smoking the bees to calm them down
19. What is the importance of honey bees for agriculture?
20. How does honey production benefit humans?
21. What are some threats to honey bee populations?
Answer: Pesticides and insecticides, habitat loss and
fragmentation, climate change and extreme weather events
22. How can individuals help to protect honey bee populations?
Answer: By planting pesticide-free plants and flowers,
supporting local beekeepers and buying local honey, advocating for policies
that protect honey bees and their habitats
23. How do honey bees contribute to the ecosystem?
Answer: They are important pollinators for many plant species,
help to maintain biodiversity, provide food for other animals
Higher
Abilities Type Questions:
24. Describe the life cycle of honey bees.
25. How do honey bees communicate with each other through dance?
26. How do honey bees use their wings to regulate temperature in
the hive?
Answer: By fanning their wings to circulate air
27. How does the external morphology of honey bees differ
between castes?
C. Short Answer Questions 2 marks
1.Why and honey bees called social insect? Cave two reasons.
2 Differentiate between bee hive and bee swarm
in two points
3. Write any two points on the importance of
honey.
4 What is apiculture? How can it contribute in
economic development at local level.
5.Why is honey bee considered as useful insect
for human beings? Write any two reason.
6. Differentiate between
a)Queen bee and drone bee b)Queen
bee and worker bee
c)Drone bee and worker bee
7. Honey bees are called
useful insects for human beings. Give any two reasons.
8. Mention the functions of queen, drones and
workers.
9. Honey bees are called social insects. Why?
10. Write any two importance of honey.
11. Write one function each of queen bee and
worker bee.
12. Mention any two differences between drone
bee and worker bee.
Understanding Type
Questions
13. Why is honey bee called a useful insects?
14. Why is the food of larva of honey bee?
15. Write any two differences between larva and
egg of honey bee
16. Write any two differences between drone bee
and worker bee.
17. Write any two differences between pupa and
larva of honey bee.
18. Why is honeybee called social insect?
19. Write any two differences between queen bee
and drone bee.
20. Write any two differences between worker bee
and queen bee.
D. Long Questions 4 marks
1. Describe the external
structure of honey bee. Also, write the function of its antennae and proboscis.
2. Imagine the situation that honey bees,
suddenly, disappeared from the earth. What would be the consequences of their
disappearance? Write your views on it.
3. Describe the external
morphology of a worker bee.
4. Write a short note on the following.
a. Mouthparts of a honey bee b. Sting of a honey bee
5. What is a queen gate? Mention the economic
importance of honey bees.
6. Describe the life cycle of a honey bee.
Application Type
Questions
7. Describe thereof are i
8. Describe in bed the advantages of honey bees
9. How in apiculture? Explain
10. Write any functions of worker b 26 Wrine any
uses of honeybee for human beings
Higher Abilities Type Questions
11. Drew a neat and labelled figure showing the
life cycle of honey bee
12. Describe the structure of queen bee with a
neat and labelled figure
13. Draw a neat and labelled figure showing the
larva and done life cyde of honeyber
14. How is honey prepared by honeybees? Describe
in brief
Unit - 4
Chromosome:
The genetic threads like substance present in the nucleus
of cell that help in the inheritance of characters from one generation to
another generation is called chromosome .They are made up from two components
i.e. protein (60%) and DNA (40%).Each chromosome consist two threads like
structure are called chromatids .The two chromatids are connected together at point
is called centromere .
Gene : A
particular segment of DNA molecule which
carry heredity characters is called gene. It also called structural and
functional unit of heredity located in chromosome .
iii)Sex chromosome determine the sex of
individual s .
iii)It forms a links between parent and
their offspring .
iv)It brings out variation through
crossing over .
Types of cell : on
the basis presence of chromosome: they are 2 type:
4.1Cell
division : The biological process in which
a diploid parent cell divides into two or four daughter cells is called cell
division .
Types of cell division : There are 3 types of
cell division :
i)The
nucleus elongated and constricts in the middle .
ii)Elongated
nucleus divides into two daughter nuclei.
iii)Finally
cytoplasm also divide into two daughter cell .
1.)Mitosis or mitotic cell division : The cell division in which a diploid parent cell
divides into two diploid daughter cells .They are identical to their parent
cell .It occurs only in somatic or vegetative cell ,so it is also called somatic cell
division. In this cell division no. of chromosome in daughter
cell remains same as in the parent cell so called equational
division .
iii)if
it become uncontrolled causes of tumour growth .
2.)Meiosis cell division :The cell division in which a parent diploid
cell divides into four haploid daughter cells is called meiosis cell division
.It occurs in only in reproductive cells at time of gamete formation so it is also called gametic cell division .In this cell division no. of
chromosome reduces in the daughter cells so, it also called reductional division .
Process of mitosis cell division :Mitosis cell division completes
into two steps :
Interphase:
1. The cell grows and produces new organelles to prepare for cell
division.
2. Chromosomes are replicated .
3.The cell continues to grow and prepares for mitosis.
A.
Karyokinesis :The process of nuclear division during cell division is called
division of karyokinesis .
Fig .Interphase
1.Prophase:
i. Chromatin
condenses: The chromosomes condense and become visible under a
microscope.
ii. Spindle
fibers form: The mitotic spindle, begins to form and will attach to the
chromosomes.
iii.
Nuclear membrane breaks down: The nuclear
membrane which surrounds the nucleus, breaks down and disappears.
Fig. Prophase
2.Metaphase:
i. Chromosomes align
at the equator: The spindle fibers align the
chromosomes along the metaphase plate,
in the middle of the cell.
Fig. Metaphase
3.Anaphase:
i. Chromosomes
separate: The spindle fibers begin to
shorten and pull the sister chromatids apart at the centromeres.
Fig. Anaphase
B. Cytokinesis
:The process of cytoplasmic
division during cell division is called division of cytokinesis.it completes
into 2 steps:
4.Telophase:
i. Chromatids arrive
at poles: The chromatids reach opposite
poles of the cell and begin to unwind and decondense.
Fig. Telophase
Significance
of Mitosis cell division:
Mitosis is a type of cell division
that occurs in eukaryotic cells, It have
following major significances
:
2.)Process
of Meiosis cell division :
A-Meiosis –I
B-Meiosis –
II
Meiosis
A-Meiosis-I Cell division :This division reduces the N. of chromosome to half so meiosis –i is called reductional division and daughter cell are genetically
different so this division is also called hetrotypic division .It completes into two stages :
a.)Karyokinesis -I:It completes in to 3 stages:
- Chromosomes condense and become
visible under a microscope.
- Homologous chromosomes start pairing
up.
ii. Zygotene:
- Homologous chromosomes fully
pair up, forming a structure ,process is called synapsis.
During synapsis one chromosome comes from parental and the other comes from maternal cell .
iii. Pachytene:
- Chromosomes continue become thicker
and shorter and each homologous chromosomes divides into four chromatid are called terad
-The chromatids coiled around
eachother and at the end of stage exchange of
heredity materials takes place is called crossing over that help to
leading to genetic diversity.
iv. Diplotene:- Homologous chromosomes begin to separate but remain attached at points called chiasmata.
v. Diakinesis:
- Chromosomes fully condense and
become visible as distinct structures.
- The nuclear membrane breaks
down, and spindle fibers start to attach to the chromosomes in
preparation for the next stage of meiosis.
2.Metaphase -I: Events
i.Homlogus
Chromosomes pairs align at the equator: The spindle fibers align the homologus chromosomes pair along the metaphase plate, in the middle of the cell.
3.Anaphase
–I Events
i. The homologus
Chromosomes separate: The
spindle fibers begin to shorten and the homologous
chromosomes separate from each other and are pulled towards opposite poles of
the cell by the spindle fibers.
b.)Cytokinesis –I:It completes into one steps:
1. The homologous chromosomes reach
their respective poles and a new nuclear
membrane forms around each haploid set of chromosomes.
B-Meiosis –II :In this cell division the N. of chromsomes are distributed
equally into daughter cell and N. of chromosome remains
same,so meiosis –II is called homotypic or
equational cell division .It completes into two
steps:
a)Karyokinesis –II:It copletes into 3 steps:
1. The nuclear membrane breaks
down, and the spindle forms again.
2. Chromosomes condense and
become visible under the microscope.
3. The sister chromatids of each
chromosome become attached to spindle fibers from opposite poles of the
cell.
2.Metaphase II:
i. Chromosomes align
at the equator: The spindle fibers align the
chromosomes along the metaphase plate,
in the middle of the cell.
3.Anaphase II:
i. Chromosomes
separate: The spindle fibers begin to
shorten and pull the sister chromatids apart at the centromeres.
b)Cytokinesis –II :It consist of one steps:
Telophase II:
i. Chromatids arrive
at poles: The chromatids reach opposite
poles of the cell and begin to unwind and decondense.
Differences between Mitosis and meiosis cell division.
|
Bases |
Mitosis |
Meiosis |
|
1.Result
2. Function
3.Takes place
4. Steps
5. Genetically 6. Crossing over 7.Pairing of homologous chromosomes? 8.Cytokinesis
|
It form two cells, having the same number of chromosomes as the parent. It help for Cellular reproduction, growth, repair, asexual reproduction It occurs in all vegetative cells in all eukaryotes Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase same as parent Not Occurs Not Occurs
Occurs in Telophase I and Telophase II |
It form four cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the
parent. It help for production of gametes (sex cells) in sexually reproducing eukaryotes with diplont life cycle It occurs in all reproductive cell Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I,
Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II Not same as parent? Occurs Occurs between each pair of homologous chromosomes Occurs in Telophase |
Significance of
Meiosis cell division:
1. Genetic diversity: Meiosis generates genetic diversity by producing genetically unique gametes
through the processes of crossing over and independent
assortment.
4.2 Chromosome:
The genetic threads like substance present in the nucleus of cell that help in the inheritance of characters from one generation to another generation is called chromosome .They are made up from two components i.e. protein (60%) and DNA (40%).Each chromosome consist two threads like structure are called chromatids .The two chromatids are connected together at point is called centromere .
Gene : A particular segment of DNA molecule which carry heredity characters is called gene. It also called structural and functional unit of heredity located in chromosome .
iii)Sex chromosome determine the sex of individual s .
iii)It forms a links between parent and their offspring .
iv)It brings out variation through crossing over .
Types of cell : on the basis presence of chromosome: they are 2 type:
Numbers of chromosomes : There are fixed
number of chromosomes in plants and animals cells .Generally in somatic
or vegetative cells having diploid (2x or 2n) number of chromosome
and in sex or gametes having haploid( x or n) number of chromosome .The number
of chromosomes differ from
|
Organisms |
No. of chromosomes |
|
1-Human 2-Frog 3-Gorilla 4-Horse 5.Dog 6-House fly 7-Mouse 8-Onion 9-Rice 10-Sugarcane 11-Maize 12.Pea |
46(23 pairs) 26 (13 pairs) 48(24 pairs) 64(32 pairs) 78 (34 pairs) 12 (6 pairs) 40(20 pairs) 16(8 pairs) 24 (12 pairs) 80 (40 pairs) 20 (10 pairs) 14 (7 Pairs) |
i)Meta centric chromosome :The chromosome in which the centromere is located in the middle point is called the Meta centric chromosome .In this chromosome two arms are equal in length .
B)On
the basis nature :They are 2 types :
i)Sex chromosome : The pairs of chromosome which determine
the sex of individual is called sex chromosome .It single in pair in human
being i.e.
x and y chromosome in male(44+xy) and xx chromosome in female (44+xx) .Sex chromosome are two types :
ii.)Y sex chromosome :The sex chromosome that contains
genes for male sex determination is called Y-sex chromosome. It occurs only in male i.e. XY
ii)Autosome
chromosome : The pairs of chromosome which determine the growth and
development in the individual are called autosome chromosomes .For
example: human
being cantains 22 pair or 44 autosome chromosome .
Sex
linked disease : A disease that occurs only in a particular types sex
either male or female is called sex linked disease .These diseases are present in sex
chromosome so transfer from one generation to another generation .For example
:breast
cancer, haemophilia i.e. in female and colour blindness ,baldness i.e. male
.etc. Symptoms of haemophilia :
4.3Nucleic
acid
:
i.Storage of genetic information: Nucleic acids store genetic
information in the form of a sequence of nucleotides.
ii.Protein synthesis: Nucleic acids are used to make proteins.
iii.Gene regulation: Nucleic acids are involved in the regulation of gene
expression.
iv.Transcription: Nucleic acids are used to transcribe DNA into RNA. This is a process
that copies
the information from DNA into RNA.
There
are two major types of nucleic acids:
1.Deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) :
The nucleic acid( genetic material) that carries the heredity
information from one generation from one generation to another
generation for the development and function of all living organisms is called DNA. In eukaryotic cell DNA is located
inside nucleus as basic component
of chromosome ,but small amount of DNA is also found in mitochondria and
plastids.In prokaryotic
cell ,It is found in cytoplasm
Important features of the structure of DNA:
i.The two strands of DNA are complementary to each other i.e. the sequence
of nucleotides on one strand determines the sequence of nucleotides on the
other strand.
iii.The DNA molecule is a double helix.One turn of the helix contains 11 base pairs with a length of 2.8 nm
iv.The DNA molecule is stabilized by hydrogen bonds.
v.The DNA double helix is anti-parallel, which means that the 5' end of one strand is paired with the 3' end of its complementary strand (and vice versa). Nucleotides are linked to each other by their phosphate groups, which bind the 3' end of one sugar to the 5' end of the next sugar.
vi.The major groove occurs when the backbones are far apart from each other and the minor groove occurs when they are close.
vii.The distance between each turn is 3.4 nm.
viiiThe major groove is 2.2 nm wide and the minor groove is 1.1 nm wide.
DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) has a unique double helix structure that was first
discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick in
1953.
The
structure of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a double helix, consisting of two complementary strands of nucleotides
that are twisted together.
The basic building block of DNA(Structural and fuctional unit of DNA or Monomer of DNA) is called nucleotide and 10 nucleotides make a single turn of DNA, which is composed of a sugar molecule (deoxyribose=C5H11O4), a phosphate group(Phosphoric acid=H3PO4), and a nitrogenous base. There are four different nitrogenous bases in DNA i.e. adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) . The two strands of DNA are arranged in a double helix structure, with the sugar and phosphate molecules forming the backbone of the molecule.The two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases, A always pairing with T(A=T) and G always pairing with C(C≡.G) is known as complementary base pairing .This complementary base pairing of DNA allows for the accurate replication of genetic information during cell division. The sequence of nitrogenous bases in DNA encodes the genetic information that is used to create proteins and carry out other cellular processes.
2.Ribonucleic
acid (RNA) :The
nucleic acid( genetic material) which is involved in
the synthesis of proteins, are essential for the growth and maintenance
of cells is called RNA. It is mainly
found in cytoplasm but small amount of RNA is also found nucleolus
and nucleoplasm.
i.)Messenger RNA (mRNA): mRNA carries the genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes,
where it is used to make proteins.
ii.) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): rRNA makes up the ribosomes themselves, which are the sites of protein synthesis.
Functions of RNA:
i.Protein synthesis: RNA is used to make proteins..
i.Single-stranded: RNA is a single-stranded molecule, while DNA is
double-stranded.
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
is a single-stranded molecule that is composed
of repeating units called nucleotides. Like DNA, each nucleotide in RNA is made up of three basic components: a nitrogenous base, a sugar
molecule, and a phosphate group.RNA uses a different sugar molecule called ribose, whereas DNA uses deoxyribose. RNA also uses a different nitrogenous
base called uracil in place of thymine found in
DNA.
The
nitrogenous bases in RNA are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil
(U). In nitrogen base A always pairing with U(A=U)
and G always pairing with C(G≡.C). The sugar molecule in RNA is ribose, which has one more
oxygen atom than the deoxyribose found in
DNA. The phosphate group links the sugar molecules
together and forms the backbone of the RNA
molecule.
|
Deoxy ribonucleic
acid(DNA) |
Ribo nucleic acid(RNA) |
|
i)It mainly found in chromosome.
ii)It transmit heredity characters from one
generation to another generation. iii)It is made up from deoxy ribo sugar. iv)It is double
helicle structure consisting of two strands.
v)It consist of Nitrogen
bases ,Phosphate ,andDeoxy Ribose sugar(
N.-P.-DS).
vi)Its Nitrogen bases consist of Adenine,Guanine,Thymine,Cytocine. |
i)It is mainly found in cytoplasm. ii)It is responsible for protein synthesis iii)It is made up from ribose sugar. iv)It is single
helicle structure consisting of single strand. v)It consist of Nitrogen
base,Phosphate, Ribose sugar(N.-P-R S). vi)Its nitrogen base consist of Adenine, Guanine ,Uracil, and cytocine. |
4.4
Heredity
4.4
Genetic science:
Heredity: The process of
transmission of characters from parents to offspring i.e. from one generation
to another generation is called heredity .It is also known as inheritance.
Gene: The structural
and functional unit heredity and the particular segment of DNA is called gene
.It is located in chromosome and made
from DNA
.
Heredity
characters: The characters which are transfer from parent to their offspring
are called heredity
characters .They are 2 types :
i)Dominant
characters: The characters which appears in F1 generation by covering the
other characters are called dominant characters. It is
represented by capital letter i.e. T for tall ,R for red colour .
Variation: The visible differences
between the
parent and offspring or between the offspring of the same parent is known as variation.
Causes
of variation :
i)Formation of gametes by meiosis cell division.
ii)Environmental
influences .
iii)Transfer of character from father and mother both.
iv)Due to structural and functional differences of genes.
i)They form
basis of heredity.
ii)They are the source of evolution and development of new
organism.
Types
of variation : There are main 2 types of variation :
1.)Heredity
variation or genetic variation: The variation which transfer from
one generation to another generation due to the structural and functional
differences of genes is called
heredity variation .It also 2 types:
Heredity
characters: The
characters which
gets a person through birth due to genes is called heredity characters
.For example:
five fingers ,two eyes two hands etc.
i)Homozygous
alleles: If both alleles of genes are identical are called homozygous
alleles .for example:TT
(tall),tt (dwarf) etc.
Phenotype: The physical or
external or observable expression of an organism is called phenotype.It
may change with time and environment .For example :Tall (TT) and hybrid
tall(Tt) are same Phenotypically.
iv)They produce large n. of offspring .
v)They are easy to handle due size of flower.
i.)Monohybrid
cross: The cross which involves between only one pair of
contrasting characters is called monohybrid cross .For example: The cross between pure
tall and pure dwarf pea plants .
1.)When pure Tall and pure dwarf pea plants are cross .What will be that ratio of pure tall and pure dwarf pea plant in F2 generation ?Give its phenotype and genotype ratio with help of the checker board.
Ans. Sign
Pure Tall =TT or T
Darf =tt
Result: i)Phenotype:The phenotypic ratio
of pure tall and pure dwarf pea plant is 3:1(75% tall pea plants and 25% dwarf pea
plants)
ii)Genotype: The genotypic
ratio of pure tall ,hybrid tall and pure dwarf pea plants is 1:2:1(25%pure tall,50%hybrid
tall and 25% pure dwarf pea plants)
3)When
black colour rabit and white colour rabit are crossed .What will be that the
ratio black colour and white colour rabit in F2 generation
?Give its phenotype and genotype ratio with help of the checker board.
4.)When
round seeded and wrinkle seeded pea plants are crossed ?What will be that
the ratio of round seeded and wrinkle seeded pea plants in F2 generation?
Give its phenotype and genotype ratio with help of the checker board.
5.)When
Pure tall and hybrid tall pea plant are crossed .What will be the that the
ratio of pure tall and hybrid tall pea plant in a F1 generation
.
6.)When
tall and tall pea plant are crossed .What will be that the ratio of pure tall
pea plant in F1 generation .
2.Dihybrid
cross : The cross which involves between two pair of contrasting
characters is called dihybrid cross .For example: The cross involves between
Round seeded yellow colour and wrinkle seeded1 green colour pea
plant .
1.)Law
of dominance: It states that when a pair of pure contrasting character are
crossed only one form of the characters appears in F1 generation is
called dominance character and other remains unexpressed is called recessive
character. For example:
in Mendel`s monohybrid cross when pure tall and pure dwarf pea plant are
crossed ,in F1 generation only tall plant are plants are seen
are called dominance characters but other remain unexpressed are called
recessive characters.
3.)Law
of independent assortment: It states that when the parents
differ from each other in two or more pairs of contrasting characters or
factors,and each pair of contrasting characters is independent to other i.e.one character does not
effect to other character during inheritance.
Genetic Technology: The use of techniques and methods concerned with the understandding structure of gene,functions of gene,modification of gene,and transfser of gene is called Genetic Technology. For example :
Advantages of Genetic Technology:
i.It help to improve crop yields: For example : Modified more resist
crops that help to prevent from pests and diseases,.
iv.DNA testing is used in crime investigation.
v.It is used to test ancestral history.
Disadvantages of Genetic Technology:
i.)The modified plants and animals dominate the ecosystem.
ii.)It has the fear of uncontrollable population growth.
iii.)There is higher risk of increasing allergies.
iv)Parasite ,viruses,bacteria will evolve and become more harmful to other natural organism
Breeding:The act of mating and producing offspring is called breeding.
Advantages of selective breeding:
i.Any one can act on selective breeding.
ii.It provide improvement to plants and animals species.
iii.New plants and animals varieties can be created.
iv.It can increase the yield from plants and animals related food products.
v. Selective breeding is not very costly.
Disadvantages of selective breeding:
i.It help to lack of variety in plants and animals species.
ii.It help to occurs genetic mutation.
iii.It help for evolutionary changes that harm the planet.
iv.It reduce the genetic variation.
v.Rare diseases gene are selected as a part of positive trait that lead the problem in specific organisms ,For example:a high percentage of Dalmatain dogs are deaf.
vi.It can create physical problem in specific organisms, for example:Large dog have faulty hip .
Some major techniques of selective breeding:
i)Inbreeding: The mating between closely related
individuals to maintain desirable
traits within a closely species is called Inbreeding. Inbreeding can increase the expression of both desirable
and undesirable traits ,For example :Mating between parent
and offspring, between brother and sister.
ii) Line breeding: The mating between animals that are more distantly related, such as grandparents and grandchildren or cousins is called Line breeding . This method is often used to maintain certain desirable traits in a particular line of animals.
.png)
iii) Self-pollination: The process of transfer of pollen grains from
anther to stigma of same flower or same plant of other flower is called self
pollination. This can help maintain desirable traits within a particular line
of plants.
iv) Cross-breeding: The process of breeding between two different varieties of animals or
plants to produce offspring with desirable traits from both parents is called cross
breeding.
i.It help to produces new type of organism .
i.The offspring produced by cross breeding are cheaper than that of
pure breeds .
Some organism produced by cross breeding :
1.Tigon:The hybrid organism produced by cross breeding between male tiger and
female Lion is called Tigon. It smaller than its parent .It Looks like
tiger but have many
features of Lion.
2.Liger : The hybrid organism produced by cross breeding between male Lion and female
Tiger is called Liger.It is bigger than that of its parent.It looks like
Lion but have many characters of tiger.
3.Beefalo: The hybrid organism produced by cross breeding between male domestic cattle and female American Bison-e};L_ is called Beefalo. It is used for Beef meat.
4.Zebroid: The hydrid organism produced by
cross breeding between zebra
and horse(=Hebra) Zebra and Donkey (=Donkra) is called Zebroid. Zebroid is sterile hybrid organism.
5. Mule: The hybrid organism produced by cross breeding between male donkey and female horse is called Mule. It can run fast like horse and carry load like donkey. Mule is sterile organism.
6.Pomato: The hybrid plant produced by grafting between potato and tomato plants is called Pomato .This plant produced potato in soil and cherry tomato in the stem.
Artificial insemination (AI): A reproductive technique in which semen(sperm) is introduced
into the reproductive tract of a female, using methods other than natural
mating, for the
purpose of achieving fertilization and pregnancy is called Artificial insemination
(AI) . This technique is commonly used in both animal breeding and human
fertility treatments..png)
Advantages of Artificial insemination :
Semen(Sperm) Bank:A facility that collect ,processes,stores,and sells sperm is called semen bank.
In vitro Fertilization(IVF):A reproductive technology (ART) in which an egg is fertilized
with sperm outside of the body in a laboratory dish
is known as In Vitro Fertilization(IVF)
.
.png)
This process
consist of following steps:
1. Ovarian stimulation:
The woman takes fertility
drugs to stimulate her ovaries to produce multiple eggs.
2. Egg retrieval:
The eggs are collected from the ovaries using a
small needle guided by ultrasound.
1.IVF is suitable method of reproduction in case of infertility.
5.IVF help to reduce
rate of abortion.
Disadvantage of IVF:
1.It is very expansive
reproduction technology.
4.Some time no eggs are collected from the ovary after stimulation.
Unit- 5
1.Human Blood Circulatory System: The group of organs working together to transports
various materials from one part of body to another part of body is called the blood
circulatory system .The human blood circulatory system consists of main
three parts .They are :.png)
1.Blood : The red liquid connective tissues which continuously in the human body by carrying O2,CO2, hormone nutrients is called blood .An average human body of male adult consist of about 5/6 litre and female about 4/5 litre blood .It has salty test and PH value of blood is 7.3 to 7.5 .
.png)
Functions
of blood :-Blood has 3 major functions :
i)It transport O2 from lungs to different parts of body
and CO2 from different parts of body to lungs .
ii)It transport nutrients absorbed in intestine to the all parts of body
.
iii)It transport waste product from different parts of body to their
respective excretory organs i.e. skin, lungs, liver , kidney etc.
2.)Regulation
functions
:
i)It maintain body temperature .
ii)It regulate amount of water in the body .
iii)It maintain different chemicals in the body .
iv)It help to regulate PH value by interacting
with acid and base .
3.)Protection
functions :
i)The blood cell WBC help in the defense system of the body by
producing antibody that fight against toxic germs .
ii)The blood cell platelets help to prevent the loss of blood from the
body by clotting the blood .
Structure
of blood :
It consist of 2 parts :
1.)Plasma
: The 55% liquid parts of blood is plasma .It consist
of about 90% water 8% protein and remaining 2% consist of hormones , ,glucose
,salt gases ,waste product etc. Plasma without fibrinogen is called serum
that used for diagnosis of various kinds diseases .
ii)The blood cell platelets help to prevent the loss of blood from the
body by clotting the blood .
ii)It transport waste product from different parts of body to their
respective excretory organ i.e. skin, kidney, liver etc.
iii)It regulate body temperature and amount of water and minerals in the
body.
iv)It transport hormones secreted by endocrine gland to the different
parts of body .
v)The albumin protein present in the plasma help tissues
repair and growth .
vi)It help to transport urea produced by liver to kidney.
vi)It contains a plasma protein is called fibrinogen that help in
clotting of blood by forming insoluble fibrin and globulin that responsible for
immunity power of the body .
2)Blood
cell or Corpuscles : The 45% solid parts of blood is called
blood cell . They are 3 types :
.png)
i)Red
blood cell (RBC) or Erythrocytes
ii)White
blood cell (WBC) Leucocytes
iii)Platelets
or Thrombocytes
A)Red
blood cell (RBCs) or Erythrocytes
Red
coloured non nucleated ,circular blood cell is called red blood
cell .One cubic milli meter (1mm3) volume of blood contains about 45/ 50 lakhs of RBCs and size of RBC is about 6 to 8 μm in diameter .Its
life span is about 120 days .They are formed in the red bone marrow 20 lakh/sec and
destroyed in
liver and spleen also 20 lakh/sec . They do not contains nucleus but contains protein pigment of iron is called haemoglobin .Haemoglobin help to
make blood red in colour and absorb oxygen (i.e.1 molecule of Hb absorb
4 molecules of O2 )from lungs .In a person lack of
RBC or haemoglobin causes of Anemia and a
person with anemia
get tired due to no enough supply of oxygen in the cell but excess amount of RBC in blood causes of Polycythemia
i)It help to transport
O2 from lungs to different parts of body and CO2 from
different parts of body to lungs.
ii)The surface of RBCs absorb the amino acid from the food in alimentary canal
and transport into the cells.
B)White blood cell (WBCs) or
Erythrocytes :
White
coloured ,nucleated ,irregular shaped blood cell is called white blood
cell .One cubic milli meter (1mm3) volume of blood contains about
6000-10000 of WBCs and size of WBC is about 12 to 17 μm in diameter .Its life span is about 12-14 days but the number
increase when body is fighting against infection . They are formed in red bone marrow
and lymph node and destroyed in the site of infection and in the liver,spleen . They contains
nucleus but not hemoglobin .
ii)Agranular
leucocytes : The leucocytes lacking granules in their cytoplasm is called agranular
leucocytes .They are also 2 types Lymphocytes and monocytes .Lemphocytes produces
antibodies to destroy germs and assist the healing injury and moncytes engulf
bacteria .In a person lack of WBCs causes of Leukopenia and excess
amount of WBCs in blood causes of blood cancer
(Leukamia)
B) Platelets or thrombocytes :
Small
,colourless, and circular blood cell are called platelets .One cubic
milli meter (1mm3) volume of blood contains about 2-4 lakhs platelees.Its
life span is about 2-3 days .They are formed in red bone marrow and destroyed in spleen . They does not contains nucleus and haemoglobin but release thread like
fibers is called thromboplastin that help to clot the blood .In
person lack of platelets causes of thromobopenis that help in excessive
bleeding occurs and excess of platelets causes of thromobocytosis that obstruct(Resist) blood
vessels
Functions i)It help to clot the blood
by producing thromboplatin on the skin in the event of an injury and
prevent excess flow of blood from the body .
Ans.Some drops of sodium
citrate or potassium citrate is put in the blood donation to prevent from
clotting of blood ,because it act as anticoagulation .
Ans. The amount of oxygen is less
in high mountain region and red blood cell is more to take large amount of
oxygen for the easy respiration to the body so the blood of a person living in
the high mountain region contain more red blood cells.
Blood group:
A classification system of blood which that categorize human blood based on the presence or absence of specific antigens and antibodies on the surface of red blood cells and plasma is
called blood group.There are two ways to
classification of blood group :
For example, a person with type A blood can only receive blood from type A
or type O blood donors. If
they were to receive type B
blood, their immune system would attack the type B blood cells and cause a hemolytic transfusion
reaction.
The ABO blood group system is
also important for pregnancy. If a woman has type O blood and her baby's father has type A or
type B blood, there is a risk that the baby will
inherit type A or type B blood. If this happens, the mother's antibody-A or antibody-B can cross the placenta and attack the baby's red blood
cells, causing a condition called hemolytic disease of the new born.
B.) Rh(Rhesus) system: The System of
classification human blood that is based
on the presence or absence of a specific D antigen, known as the Rh factor, on the surface of red blood
cells. is called Rh system of classification of blood. The Rh factor is
named after
the Rhesus monkey, in which the antigen was first discovered. The Rh blood
group system is also known as the Rhesus factor.
People who have the D antigen are called Rh
positive, while people who
lack the D antigen are called Rh negative. which is present in about 85% of
the population.
|
Rh Blood Type |
Description |
|
Rh positive |
Has the D antigen. This is the most common type of Rh blood. |
|
Rh negative |
Lacks the D antigen. This is the less common type of Rh blood. |
Therefore On basis of ABO system human blood are classified into following types :
ii.A negative
iii.B positive
iv.B negative
v.AB positive
vi.AB negative
vii.O positive
viii.O negative
Transfer of blood between different blood group in human being.
|
Blood Type |
Can Donate to |
Can Receive from |
|
A+ |
A+, AB+ |
A+, A-, O+, O- |
|
A- |
A+ , A-, AB+, AB- |
A-, O- |
|
B+ |
B+, AB+ |
B+, B-, O+, O- |
|
B- |
B+, B-, AB+, AB- |
B-, O- |
|
AB+ |
AB+ |
Everyone |
|
AB- |
AB+, AB-, |
AB-, A-, B-, O- |
|
O+ |
O+, A+, B+, AB+ |
O+, O- |
|
O- |
Everyone |
O- |
The Rh blood group system is also important in pregnancy, because Rh incompatibility between the mother and fetus can lead to hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN). Because antibodies to the RhD antigen can cause hemolytic transfusion reactions,
2.Blood
vessels : The muscular
tubular pipe that carry blood through the tissues and organs is called blood
vessels .They are 3 types :
1.)Artery
:-
The blood vessels which carry the oxygenated blood from the heart to the
all parts of body(except pulmonary artery) is called artery .It has thick
muscular and more elastic wall because blood remains in high pressure in it. They have no
valve. The
thinner branch of artery is called arterioles and thicker branch is called
aorta.
2.)Vein : The blood
vessels that carry deoxygenated blood from different parts of body to heart
(except pulmonary vein) is called vein ).It has thin muscular wall because blood remains
in low pressure in it .They have valve that control back flow of blood in it due to
low pressure .The thinner
branch of vein is called venules and thicker branch is called venacava .
3.)Capillaries :-Very thin and fine
network of blood vessels formed by the combination of arterioles and venules is
called capillaries. It act act as connection between artery and vein. The exchange of O2
,CO2 nutrients, and waste product takes place in
capillaries .
3.Heart :Heart is a conical
muscular organ up from cardiac muscles ,which is situated
in the thoracic
cavity between two lungs .It pumps out the pure blood to all parts of body and collect
the impure blood from different parts of body .
Heart is divided into 4 chambered i.e. upper
right chamber is called right auricle ,lower right chamber is
called right
ventricle, upper left chamber is called left ventricle and lower left
chamber is called left ventricle . It also consist of
following parts :
i)Venacava : The blood vessels that carry impure blood from
different parts of body to right auricle is called venacava I.e. superior venacava collect blood
upper parts of body and inferior
vena cava collect blood lower parts of body .
ii)Bicuspid
valve or mitral valve or left atrio ventricular valve : The valve
which is situated between left auricle and left ventricle is called bicuspid
valve .It consist of 2 valve so it is called bicuspid valve .It help to pass
and prevent from back flow of blood from left auricle to left ventricle .
iii)Pulmonic
valve :The valve which is situated between
right ventricle and pulmonary artery is called pulmonic valve .It help to pass and
prevent from back flow of impure blood from right ventricle to pulmonary artery
.
iv)Aortic
valve : The valve
which is situated between left ventricle and aorta is called aortic valve .It help to pass and
prevent from back flow of pure blood from left ventricle to aorta .
Types
of blood circulation _ it is 2 types :
i)Systematic blood
circulation : The
circulation of blood from the left ventricle to right auricle of heart through
the body (except lungs) is called systemic circulation . for example :
ii)Pulmonary blood circulation : The circulation of the blood from right ventricle of heart to left auricle through the lungs is known as pulmonary blood
1.)Right
auricle larger than that of left auricle ,why ?
Ans.Right auricle
collect large
amount of deoxygenated blood from all parts body through superior and inferior
vena cava but left auricle collect only oxygenated blood from lungs through
pulmonary artery ,so right auricle is larger than that of left auricle .
2.)The walls of ventricle
has thicker muscular wall than that auricles ,why?
Ans. The
ventricles pumps
the blood into artery through aorta and requires more pressure but auricles
collect the blood from vena cava through the vein and requires less pressure ,therefore the
walls of ventricles has muscular wall than that of auricles .
3.)The wall of right
ventricle is thicker than that left ventricle ,why?
4.)The wall of the vein is
thinner than that artery ? or Vein lies just beneath the skin but arteries are
deep seated ,why?
Ans. The heart pumps the
pure blood into the arteries with in high pressure but blood flow
in vein very slowly with less pressure, therefore the wall of vein is
thinner than that of artery .
5.)The
bleeding from the artery is very dangerous why ?
Ans. The heart pumps
the pure blood into artery with in very high pressure so during
bleeding pure blood flow out with very high pressure .Therefore the
bleeding from artery is very dangerous .
Heart beat : The periodic contraction and
relaxation of heart muscles in order to receive and pump blood is
called heart beat .It occurs due to contraction and relaxation of its auricles
and ventricles ,in which contraction phase is called systolic phase and
relaxation phase is diastolic phase. A normal people have the heart beat rate
72 times per minutes .This rate increase due increase during sickness
,exercise,fear, excitement under stress etc.
Some diseases :
1.Heart Attack: A serious medical conditions when blood flow in a coronary artery that supply blood to the tissues of heart is disturbed and part
of the heart is suddenly blocked due to deposit of fat and cholesterol that can causes damage cardiac tissues is known as
heart attack .It is also known as a myocardial infarction(MI).
vii. Consumption of more fatty and oily foods
viii. Stress
of hypertension
Symptoms of heart attack:
i.Chest
pain in left
side of chest .
iii. Pain in the jaw,
neck, back, arm, or shoulder
iv. Nausea or vomiting
v. Light headedness or Feeling
dizziness.
vii. Feeling of heart
burn
viii. Irregular
heart beat and Unconciousness
vi. Managing
hypertension or stress:
v. Control and treat diabetes and high blood pressure
vii. Take foods that protect our heart
Diagnosis and test of heart attack:
i. By Eletrocardiography to measures the
heart’s electrical activity.
Angiography :A medical imaging procedure which is used to visualize the inside of blood vessels by help of x-ray, such as arteries or veins, in
various parts of the body is called is called Angiography
.A special dye
called a contrast agent is injected into the blood
vessels,during angiography which makes
them visible
on the X-ray images,and x-ray image is called Angiogram.
There are several types of angiography procedures, such as coronary angiography, cerebral angiography, and peripheral angiography,
it may carry some risks, such as bleeding, infection, or allergic reactions to the contrast dye.
Uses of Angiogram
i.Angiography is used to diagnose
the blockages, narrowing, or abnormalities in blood vessels,
ii.It is used to guide certain
treatments, such as angioplasty .
iii.It is used to diagnose different parts of the
body, such as the heart,
brain, legs, and kidneys etc.
Treatments of heart attack :The
procedures which are used to open blockage of arteries are called
treatments of heart attack .Some majors treatments of heart attack are :
2.Coronary Angioplasty or Balloon Angioplasty or stent placement :
It is often used to
treat coronary artery disease (CAD), in
which conditions the arteries that supply blood to the heart become narrowed or
blocked.
During coronary angioplasty, a thin, flexible tube (catheter) is
inserted into a blood vessel in the arm, groin, or neck. The catheter is
then threaded
through the blood vessels to the heart. A small balloon is attached to
the end of the catheter and inflated
to widen the narrowed or blocked artery. After the balloon is inflated, the
stent (A small tube of wire like net) is
inserted into the artery. The stent is then
expanded, which helps to keep the artery open. The balloon is then deflated and removed.The procedure takes about 1-2 hours.
It is is a safe
and effective procedure but sometimes may carry some risks, such as bleeding, infection, or
allergic reactions to the contrast dye.
i.It is a less
complicate procedure than surgery.
3.Coronary artery bypass surgery :
A surgical
procedure that is used to
improve blood flow to the heart is known as Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) It is done by creating a new path for blood to flow
around a narrowed or blocked coronary artery.
The new
path is created by using a blood vessel from another part of the body, such
as the chest,
arm, or leg. The blood vessel is called a graft. The graft is attached to the
coronary artery above
and below the blockage. so that blood can flow freely to the heart muscle.
CABG
is a major surgery, and takes about 3
to 6 hours but it is a very effective
treatment for coronary artery disease. but sometimes may carry some risks, such as bleeding,
infection, heat damage. It can help to
improve blood flow to the heart and reduce the risk of heart attack.
i.It can improve blood
flow to the heart and reduce the risk of heart attack.
iii.It can improve
the quality of life.
2. Blood pressure : The pressure exerted by the flow
of blood on the wall of blood vessels is called blood pressure .It is
measured in
mili meter of mercury (mm of Hg )by using an instruments is called Syphgmomanometer .
Types of blood pressure : It
is 2 types :
i)Systolic blood pressure : The pressure of blood inside
blood vessels(
i.e. artery)during contraction of heart is called systolic blood pressure .
ii)Diastolic blood pressure : The pressure of blood
inside the blood vessels (i.e.artery)during relaxation of heart is called
diastolic blood pressure .
High and low blood pressure : When Blood pressure
become more than normal range is called high blood pressure (Hypertension) . it can rupture
the artery and causes of internal bleeding and death but when blood
pressure become less than that of normal range is called low blood
pressure (Hypotension) .
iii) over weight .
iv)More use of fatty and fried foods
v)Heredity
vi)Drinking of alcohol and smoking
Symptoms of high blood
pressure : i)Causes of
headache and faigue.
iii)Chest pain and short breath.
iv)irregular heart beat .
v)Blood in urine and internal bleeding .
Control or prevention measure of high
blood pressure .
i)By eating healthy foods i.e. low in calories .
ii)Avoiding consumption of more salt ,and oil in food .
iii)Avoid alcohol consumption and smoking .
iv)Maintaining health weight .
v)Avoiding the consumption of soda and cold drink .
vi)Regular exercise and reducing stress.
Diabetes( Blood sugar) : A disease that causes of
increase of sugar level in blood due to less production of insulin hormone by
pancreas is called diabetes. Insulin convert excess blood sugar into glycogen
and store in the liver and glucogon
hormone convert glycogen into sugar from liver during lack of sugar
level in blood .
After eating(Post proandial or PP): less than 140 mg/dl or between :80
mg/dl to 140 mg/dl )
Causes of diabetes : i) Lack of
physical activities and more stress.
iii) )More use of fatty and fried foods.
iv) Drinking of alcohol and smoking.
v) Heredity.
Symptoms of diabetes :
i)Frequent urination .
ii)Excessive thrust .
iii)Excessive hunger and appetite .
iv)Loss of weight .
v)Slow healing and cut of wounds.
Controls or prevention of diabetes
:
i)By eating healthy foods i.e. low in calories .
ii) Avoiding consumption of more fat and oil in food .
iii) Avoid alcohol consumption and smoking .
iv) Maintaining health weight .
v) )Regular exercise and reducing stress.
3. Uric
acid(C5H4N4O3): The acid which is
produced as the byproduct of decomposition of purine found in the cell or
food is called uric acid .It is formed inside liver and intestine It is
excreted by the kidney .It
help to protect inner part of
blood vessels and help to remove the toxics materials from the body. The concentration of uric acid in blood plasma above the normal
range is called hyperuricemia and below the normal range is called hypouricemia .
Normal
range : In male -3.4
mg/dl to 7.2 mg/dl
i)Over consumption of alcohol and caffeine .
ii)Over weight .
iii)Over consumption of red meat ,pea, and beer and cold drink .
iv)Kidney disorder .
v)Heredity
iv)Consumption of purine rich diet i.e. liver, sea food .
Symptoms
of increasing level uric acid :
i)Intense joint pain .
ii)Redness , Tenderness, and swelling of joints and skin .
iii)Internal pain in muscles.
Controls
or prevention measures of increasing of uric acid : i)Use of lemon juice
with hot water .
iii)Less consumption of protein or purine rich foods .
iv)Regular exercise and healthy diet .
v)Drinking of plenty of water .
vi)Avoiding alcohol and caffeine .
Unit -6
Nature and Environment
Climate: The atmospheric condition over a long
period of time is known as climate .
1.Volcanic
eruptions: Volcanoes
release greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and Sulphur dioxide into the
atmosphere. These gases can trap heat and warm the
planet.
Effects of climate change: The effects of
climate change are as following :
1.Rising sea levels: The oceans are absorbing more heat
from the atmosphere, which is causing them to expand. This is leading to rising sea levels,
Controlling measures of climate change: There are some major ways to controls
measures climate change. These measures can be divided into
three broad categories:
1. Mitigation measures: These
measures aim to reduce the amount of greenhouse
gases emitted into the atmosphere. Some
examples of mitigation measures are:
Ø
Circular economy such as reuse, recycling to minimize waste, reduce
emissions, and increase resource efficiency.
Ø
Water resource management:
Ø
Ecosystem conservation and restoration:
Ø
Climate-smart agriculture:
3.International Cooperation: Such as
Endangered animals and Plants :The animals and plants those are at risk of extinction due to rapid
decrease in their population or loss of their habitat are known as endangered animals
and plants.
1.Habitat loss: When the animal or plant's natural habitat is destroyed, they may not be able to find
food or shelter.
3.Pollution: Pollution can contaminate the air, water, and soil, making it
difficult for animals and plants to survive.
Measures to protect endangered animals and plants :There are are some
of the measures that can be taken to protect endangered animals and plants:
3.By Educating and awareness the public
8.By Reducing your waste: Reduce the
amount of waste you produce by recycling, composting, and reusing items.
Protected animals and birds in Nepal :In Nepal 26 species of mammals,
9 species of birds ,and 3 species of reptiles are listed as endangered species
.They are given as following :
A.Critically Endangered
1.Blackbuck - कृष्णसार_
2.Chinese pangolin - चाइनिज सालक _
3.Indian pangolin - इन्डीयन सालक _
4.Himalayan musk deer - कस्तुरी मृग _
5.River dolphin- सोंस _
6.Tibetan gazelle
Endangered
7.Asiatic elephant - जंगली हात्ती _
12.Dhole
13.Four-horned antelope - चौका _
15.Greater one-horned rhinoceros - गैडा _
17.Hispid hare - हिस्पीड खराया] _
20.Leopard cat +- चरी वाघ_
22.Red panda - हाव्रे _
24.Swamp deer- वाह्र सिंहे_
25.Wild water buffalo - अर्ना_
Endangered mammals in Nepal:
1.Black Buck- कृष्णसार_
The black buck (Antilope
cervicapra) is a
species of antelope native to India and Nepal. It inhabits grassy plains and lightly forested areas .
2.Chinese pangolin - चाइनिज सालक _ MThe Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) is a species of pangolin found in northern parts of Southeast Asia, i.e China, Indian and Nepal. It is a small, nocturnal mammal covered in scales made of keratin, which is the same material that makes up human hair and nails. The Chinese pangolin feeds mainly on ants and termites, which it captures using its long, sticky tongue. It is a solitary animal that spends most of its time in burrows or trees.
3.Himalayan musk deer ( कस्तुरी मृग )
The Himalayan
musk deer, also known
as Moschus chrysogaster, is a species of deer found in the densely forested areas of Asia's alpine zones. These deer are known
for their unique
communication method.
4.Indian pangolin:
5.River dolphin(सोंस )
The Ganges
river dolphin is a freshwater dolphin that can only live in freshwater and is
essentially blind.
6.Tibetan gazelle
The Tibetan gazelle is a small antelope that inhabits the Tibetan plateau.They have slender and graceful bodies, with long, tapering,
ridged horns that reach lengths of 26 to 32 cm .
7.Asiatic elephant - जंगली हात्ती _
MMThe Asian elephant is the largest land mammal in Asia. The Asian
elephant is found in isolated pockets
Southeast Asia i.e. Nepal ,India . They
are considered forest animals.
8.Assamese monkey (आसामी रातो वांदर )
MThe Assam macaque, also known as the Assamese macaque, is a
species of Old World monkey native to South and Southeast Asia .The Assam macaque is diurnal and can be both
arboreal and terrestrial.They are found in the forests
of southeast Asia i.e.Vietnam to Nepal.
9.Bengal tiger (पाटे वाघ )
Bengal tigers are a subspecies of tiger found primarily in India, with smaller populations in Bangladesh, Nepal,
Bhutan, and China. They are
the most numerous tiger
subspecies, but are
still considered endangered due to
habitat loss and poaching.
10.Brown bear (हिमाली भालु )
Brown bears are a species of bear found throughout North America, Europe, and Asia.They are omnivores and feed on a
variety of foods, including berries, fish, and small mammals. Brown bears are also skilled hunters and can take down large prey such as moose and elk, brown bears are considered vulnerable due to habitat loss and hunting.
11.Black bear:
Black bears are omnivores and their diet includes berries, nuts, roots, insects, and small mammals. Black bears are excellent climbers and swimmers, and they can run up to 30 miles per hour.
12. Dhole or Grey wolf :
Dholes, also
known as Asiatic wild dogs, are native to South and Southeast Asia. They
are highly social animals. Dholes
are excellent hunters and can take down prey much
larger than themselves, such as deer and wild boar.
13.Four-horned antelope (चौका )
14.Lynx ( पहान विरालो )
Lynxes are medium-sized wild cats found throughout North America, Europe, and Asia
During the summer, it has a relatively short, reddish or brown coat, which is replaced by a much thicker
silver-grey to greyish-brown
coat during winter. Lynxes are known for their sharp vision and are ambush
predators that attack prey after silently stalking them They have longer legs and bigger paws
compared to bobcats.
15.Greater one-horned rhinoceros (गैडा )
The greater
one-horned rhinoceros, also known as the Indian rhinoceros, The greater one-horned
rhinoceros is identified by a single black horn about 8-25 inches long and a
grey-brown hide with skin folds . Greater one-horned rhinos are grazers. When not grazing on land,
animals like to immerse themselves in water, where they also graze on aquatic
plants. The greater one-horned rhino is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List.
16.Himalayan tahr
Himalayan tahrs are a species
of wild goat found in the Himalayas in India, Nepal, and Bhutan.The Himalayan tahr has a shaggy coat that
varies in color from reddish-brown to dark brown, with a dark stripe along the
back.Himalayan tahrs are herbivores and feed on grasses,
leaves, and shrubs.They are social animals and live in groups of up to 20 individuals, with males and
females forming separate herds. Himalayan tahrs are an
important species for conservation efforts, as their populations have declined
due to habitat loss and hunting.
17.Hispid hare (हिस्पीड खराया )
MThe hispid hare, also known as the Assam rabbit and bristly rabbit, They are found in South Asia. The hispid hare has a harsh and bristly coat that
is dark brown on the back due to a mixture of black and brown hairs, brown on
the chest, and whitish on the abdomen. Its ears are very short . The
hispid hare is herbivorous and feeds mainly on roots of grasses, shoots, bark, and occasionally crops.The
hispid hare is an endangered species .Its habitat is highly fragmented, and its populations
have declined due to habitat loss and hunting.
18.Himalayan wolf (व्वांसा)
The Himalayan wolf is a
subspecies of the Gray Wolf and is found in the
high-altitude regions of Nepal, Tibet, and other
parts of the Himalayas .The Himalayan wolf has a thick, woolly fur that is dull earthy-brown on the back and tail, and
yellowish-white on the face, belly, and limbs. Himalayan wolves are well adapted to the cold high-altitude desert . They are social animals
that live in packs and hunt in group .The Himalayan wolf is a carnivore and feeds mainly on wild ungulates such as Himalayan tahr, musk deer, and blue sheep.
19.Indian leopard ( ध्वांसे चितवा )
The Indian leopard has a broad
muzzle, short ears, and small, yellowish-grey eyes.It has a long, well-formed
tail and strong legs. Indian leopards are solitary
animals that are active mainly at night .They are excellent climbers and can drag their prey up into trees to protect it from other
predators.The Indian leopard is a carnivore and feeds mainly on small to medium-sized prey such as deer, wild
boar, and monkeys.The Indian leopard is
distributed in India, Nepal, Bhutan, and
parts of Pakistan.
20.Leopard cat (चरी वाघ )
The leopard cat is a small wild
cat native to Asia. It is about the size of a domestic cat, with a slender
build and distinctive leopard-like spots on its fur. Leopard cats are skilled
climbers and hunters, feeding on a variety of prey including rodents, birds,
and reptiles.
21.Red fox
The red fox is a common wild animal found in many parts of the world, including North America, Europe, and Asia. They are known for their distinctive reddish-orange fur, white underbelly,
and bushy tail. Red foxes
are omnivores,
feeding on a variety of prey including small mammals, birds, insects, and
fruits. They are
also known for their adaptability and can thrive in a variety of habitats,
including forests,
grasslands, and even urban areas. Red foxes are often hunted for their fur, which is used in clothing and accessories.
22.Red panda - हाव्रे _
The red panda, also known as the
lesser panda, is a small
mammal native to the eastern Himalayas
and southwestern China. It has dense reddish-brown fur with a black belly and
legs, white-lined ears, a mostly white muzzle, and a ringed tail. Red pandas are approximately the size of a large housecat and have cat-like faces. Red pandas are primarily herbivores, feeding on bamboo and other
vegetation, fruits, and insects.
They are also known for their adaptability
and can thrive in a variety of
habitats.
23.Snow leopard (हिउ चितवा )
The snow leopard, also known as the ounce, is a large cat native to
the mountain ranges of Central and South Asia. They are known for their thick white-gray fur
with black spots on the head and neck, which helps them blend in perfectly with their
surroundings. Snow leopards are well adapted to life in the cold mountains, with powerful legs and wide, fur-covered feet that act as
natural snowshoes. Snow
leopards are primarily carnivores,
feeding on a variety of prey including blue sheep, Argali wild sheep, ibex,
marmots, pikas, and hares. Snow
leopards are listed as Vulnerable on the
IUCN Red List .
24.Swamp deer- वाह्र सिंहे_
The swamp deer, also known as barasingha, is a deer species found in open forests and grasslands of India and Nepal. They frequent flat or undulating grasslands and generally keep
in the outskirts. The swamp
deer is a herbivore,
feeding on grasses, aquatic plants, and other vegetation.
25.Wild water buffalo (अर्ना)
The wild water buffalo, also known as the Asian buffalo or Asiatic buffalo, is a native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. The wild water buffalo has an ash-gray to black skin with
moderately long, coarse, and sparse hair that is directed forward from the haunches to the long and
narrow head.Wild water buffaloes are
herbivores, feeding on grasses, aquatic plants, and other vegetation. They are listed as Endangered in the IUCN Red List .
26.Wild Yak (जंगली याक )
9-Endangered birds in Nepal
1.Great horned Hornbill(राज धनेश )
The Great Horned
Hornbill (Buceros bicornis)
is a large bird found in the Indian
subcontinent and Southeast Asia.
It is one of the larger members of the hornbill family, known for its distinctive yellow bill and
casque. The Great
Horned Hornbill is predominantly frugivorous,
but also preys on small
mammals, reptiles, and birds.
The Great Horned Hornbill has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List .
2. Cheer Pheasant (चीर कालिज )
The Cheer Pheasant (Catreus wallichii), also known as Wallich's pheasant or chir pheasant, is a vulnerable species of the
pheasant family, Phasianidae.. These birds lack the color and brilliance
of most pheasants, with buffy gray plumage and long, gray crests.Cheer Pheasants are primarily
found in the highlands and scrublands of
the Himalaya region, including India, Nepal, and Pakistan. The species is
listed as globally vulnerable, and its conservation is
crucial, especially in unprotected areas.
3.Bengal Florican (खर मुजुर)
The Bengal Florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis), also known as the
Bengal bustard, is a critically endangered bustard species native to the Indian
subcontinent, and Nepal. The Bengal Florican has black plumage from the
head and neck to the under parts, with a long lanky crest on its head and
elongated neck. Her wing coverts are
lighter than the remiges and covered in fine dark barring.
4.Crimson-horned Pheasant (मुनाल )
The Crimson-horned Pheasant, also known as the Satyr Tragopan (Tragopan satyra), is a pheasant species found in the
Himalayan reaches of India, Tibet,
Nepal, and Bhutan. They are
known for their striking crimson
and black plumage, with a distinctive pair of horns on their head. The Crimson-horned Pheasant is primarily herbivorous, feeding on a variety of
plants, fruits, and insects.
They are listed as Near Threatened
on the IUCN Red List .
5.Black Stork (कालो गरुड )
The Black Stork (Ciconia nigra) is a large bird mainly black with a purplish-green sheen, except for the
white lower breast, belly, armpits, and under tail coverts. The Black Stork is primarily found in wetlands, marshes, and rivers in Europe and Asia. They are primarily carnivorous, feeding on fish, amphibians,
reptiles, small mammals, and insects. The Black Stork is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.
6.Impeyan Pheasant (डांफे )
The Impeyan Pheasant, also known as the Himalayan Monal, is a pheasant native to Himalayan forests. It is a relatively large-sized bird.The The Impeyan Pheasant
has iridescent
and colorful wings and neck, while the female is less colourful.The Impeyan Pheasant is sometimes referred to
as the "nine-colored
bird.It is the national bird of Nepal, where it is known as the danphe or danfe.
7.Lesser Florican (सानो खरमुजुर)
The Lesser Florican, also known as Sypheotides indicus, is a small and found in grasslands,
scrubby fields, and select agricultural matrices.The
Lesser Florican is striking, with a black body,
pale wings, and a filamentous crest .
8.White strok (सेतो गरुड )
The White Stork (Ciconia ciconia) is a large bird easily
recognizable by its white plumage, black flight feathers and wing
coverts, long red bill, and red legs. It has a long neck, long legs,
and a long straight pointed beak, typical of storks.The White Stork actively seeks a wide range of
animal prey and takes most of
its food from the ground .
9.Sarus Crane (सारस )
The Sarus Crane (Antigone antigone) is a large nonmigratory
crane found in parts of the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and Nepal. It is the tallest of the flying bird. They forage on
marshes and shallow wetlands for roots, tubers, insects, crustaceans, and small
vertebrate prey.
3 -Endangered Reptiless in Nepal:
1.Gharial (घडियाल गोही )
The gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) is a critically
endangered crocodilian species found in parts of the Indian subcontinent. It is easily
distinguished from other crocodiles by its long, slender snout, which is lined with many sharp,
interlocking teeth.
2.Asiatic rock python (अजिंगर )
The Asiatic rock python, also known as the Indian rock python
(Python molurus), is a large python species native to tropical and subtropical regions of the Indian subcontinent and
Southeast Asia.It is closely related
to the Burmese python and is
among the largest snakes in the world.
3.Golden monitor lizard (सुनगोहोरो )
The golden monitor lizard, also known
as the yellow
monitor lizard, is a
species of monitor
lizard found in Southeast Asia. It is closely related to the mangrove
monitor lizard and is known for its striking yellow coloration .
Traditionally used herbal Plants
and importance :
1.Tulsi (Holy basil )
2.Neem
3.Gurjo (Heart loved moonseed )
4.Godhtapre(Asiatic pennywort )
5.Besar (Termeric)
6.Asuro (Malabar nut)
7.Bojho (Calamus )
8.Yarsagumba (Caterpillar fungus )
9.Titepati (Mugwort)
10.Ghiukumari (Alovera)
1.Tulsi (Holy basil ):
Tulsi, also known as holy basil or Ocimum tenuiflorum .It
is an aromatic (Sunandha) shrub plant .It holds
significant cultural and religious importance in Hinduism and is commonly found in households and temples
It has green leaves with a distinct, strong aroma and purple or reddish
stems. The plant produces small, white-to-purplish flowers that bloom in clusters.
Uses of Tulsi:
1. Medicinal Purposes: Tulsi leaves are often consumed as herbal tea or used in medicinal preparations for treating respiratory
disorders, digestive issues, and promoting general wellness.
2.Neem:
Neem, scientifically known as Azadirachta indica, It is a fast-growing tree that can reach
a height of up to 65 feet. Neem has a straight
trunk with a wide crown and dark green, pinnate leaves. The tree produces small,
white flowers that give rise to olive-like fruits containing a single seed.
Uses of Neem:
1. Medicinal Properties: Its leaves, bark, seeds, and oil are used to treat skin conditions like acne, eczema, and psoriasis,
and is also used for digestive disorders, fever,
and diabetes management.
3.Gurjo (Heart loved moonseed )
Gurjo, is scientifically known as Tinospora cordifolia,It is a climbing shrub . The plant has heart-shaped leaves and green
fruits that turn red when ripe.
Uses of Gurjo
1.To treat infections:It is used to treat a variety of infections, including bacterial, viral, and
parasitic infections
2.To improve digestion: It is used to improve digestion
and relieve digestive problems, such as constipation, indigestion, and diarrhea.
3.To manage diabetes: It is used to manage diabetes and
lower blood sugar levels.
4.Godhtapre(Asiatic pennywort )
Godhtapre or Gotukola, is
scientifically known as Centella asiatica, .It is a small, creeping herb It is also known
as Asiatic pennywort,
Indian water hedge, and marsh pennywort.
Uses of Godhtapre or Gotukola,
5.Besar
(Termeric)
Besar (Turmeric) is scientifically known as Curcuma longa. It is commonly
used in Indian cuisine (Khana). It has a warm, earthy flavor and
a bright yellow color.
Uses of Besar (Turmeric)
1.To reduce inflammation: It is used to reduce inflammation throughout the
body. It also help in the conditions such as arthritis, asthma.
5.To improve brain function: It help to improve brain function.
6.Asuro (Malabar nut)
Asuro, (Malabar nut) is scientifically known as Adhatoda vesica. It is a climbing shrub. Asuro have antimicrobial properties, that help to
kill bacteria and fungi. Asuro is typically used in the form of a powder, capsule, or
liquid extract.
Uses of Asuro(Malabar nut):
1.To treat respiratory problems: It help to treat respiratory
problems such as asthma, bronchitis, and coughs. It can help to reduce inflammation in
the airways and make it easier to breathe.
5.To protect against cancer: It help to protect against cancer
by killing cancer cells and inhibiting tumor growth.
7.Bojho (Calamus )
Bojho, is scientifically known as Calamus calamus.It is a aquatic, reed-like herb.Bojho contains a
number of compounds that have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties. Bojho is used in
the form of a powder, capsule, or liquid extract.
Uses of Bojho (Calamus )
1.To treat digestive problems: It help to treat digestive problems such as indigestion, diarrhea,
and constipation. It can also help to relieve vomiting.
3.To boost the immune system: It help to boost the immune system and fight against
infection.
8.Yarsagumba (Caterpillar fungus )
Yarsagumba (caterpillar fungus) is scientifically known as Cordyceps sinensis .It is a parasitic fungus that grows on moth larvae in the high altitudes of the
Himalayas. Yarsagumba is used in the form of a powder, capsule, or
liquid extract. It can be taken on its own or added to food or drinks.
Uses of Yarsagumba:
1.Improved energy levels: It help to improve energy levels and reduce fatigue(Thakan) by improving the efficiency of the
mitochondria, which are the power plants of the cells.
5.Reduced inflammation: It has anti-inflammatory properties that help to people with conditions such as arthritis.
9.Titepati (Mugwort)
Titepati (Mugwort) is scientifically known as Artemisia vulgaris. It is a flowering plant .. It is often
used to make tea, soups or as a culinary herb. Titepati is used in the form of a powder, capsule, or
liquid extract.
9.Titepati (Mugwort)
Titepati (Mugwort) is scientifically known as Artemisia vulgaris. It is a flowering plant .. It is often
used to make tea, soups or as a culinary herb. Titepati is used in the form of a powder, capsule, or
liquid extract.
Uses of Titepati(Mugwort):
4.Boosted immune system: it help to boost the immune system
and fight against infection.
10.Ghiukumari (Alovera)
Uses of Ghiukumari (Alovera )
1.Improved skin health: It is used to improve skin health by reducing
inflammation, healing wounds, and moisturizing the skin.
T
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